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Introduction To Probability
Introduction To Probability
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Probability
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Probability as a Numerical Measure
of the Likelihood of Occurrence
0 .5 1
Probability:
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An Experiment and Its Sample Space
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Example: Bradley Investments
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A Counting Rule for
Multiple-Step Experiments
If an experiment consists of a sequence of k steps in
which there are n1 possible results for the first step, n2
possible results for the second step, and so on, then
the total number of experimental outcomes is given
by (n1)(n2) . . . (nk).
A helpful graphical representation of a multiple-step
experiment is a tree diagram.
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Example: Bradley Investments
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Example: Bradley Investments
Tree Diagram
Markley Oil Collins Mining Experimental
(Stage 1) (Stage 2) Outcomes
Gain 8 (10, 8) Gain $18,000
(10, -2) Gain $8,000
Lose 2
Gain 10 Gain 8 (5, 8) Gain $13,000
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Assigning Probabilities
Classical Method
Assigning probabilities based on the assumption
of equally likely outcomes.
Relative Frequency Method
Assigning probabilities based on experimentation
or historical data.
Subjective Method
Assigning probabilities based on the assignor’s
judgment.
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Classical Method
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Example: Lucas Tool Rental
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Example: Lucas Tool Rental
Number of Number
Polishers Rented of Days Probability
0 4 .10 = 4/40
1 6 .15 = 6/40
2 18 .45 etc.
3 10 .25
4 2 .05
40 1.00
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Subjective Method
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Example: Bradley Investments
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Events and Their Probability
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Example: Bradley Investments
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Some Basic Relationships of Probability
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Complement of an Event
Event A Ac
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Union of Two Events
Event A Event B
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Example: Bradley Investments
M C = {(10, 8), (10, -2), (5, 8), (5, -2), (0, 8), (-20, 8)}
P(M C) = P(10, 8) + P(10, -2) + P(5, 8) + P(5, -2)
+ P(0, 8) + P(-20, 8)
= .20 + .08 + .16 + .26 + .10 + .02
= .82
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Intersection of Two Events
Event A Event B
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Example: Bradley Investments
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Addition Law
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Example: Bradley Investments
Addition Law
Markley Oil or Collins Mining Profitable
We know: P(M) = .70, P(C) = .48, P(M C) = .36
Thus: P(M C) = P(M) + P(C) - P(M C)
= .70 + .48 - .36
= .82
This result is the same as that obtained earlier using
the definition of the probability of an event.
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Mutually Exclusive Events
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Mutually Exclusive Events
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Conditional Probability
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Example: Bradley Investments
Conditional Probability
Collins Mining Profitable given
Markley Oil Profitable
P (C M ) . 36
P (C | M ) . 51
P( M ) . 70
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Multiplication Law
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Example: Bradley Investments
Multiplication Law
Markley Oil and Collins Mining Profitable
We know: P(M) = .70, P(C|M) = .51
Thus: P(M C) = P(M)P(M|C)
= (.70)(.51)
= .36
This result is the same as that obtained earlier
using the definition of the probability of an event.
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Independent Events
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Independent Events
P(A B) = P(A)P(B)
The multiplication law also can be used as a test to
see if two events are independent.
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Example: Bradley Investments
DoesP(M C) = P(M)P(C) ?
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Bayes’ Theorem
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Example: L. S. Clothiers
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Example: L. S. Clothiers
New Information
The planning board has recommended against the
zoning change. Let B denote the event of a negative
recommendation by the planning board.
Given that B has occurred, should L. S. Clothiers
revise the probabilities that the town council will
approve or disapprove the zoning change?
Conditional Probabilities
Past history with the planning board and the town
council indicates the following:
P(B|A1) = .2 P(B|A2) = .9
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Example: L. S. Clothiers
Tree Diagram
P(A1) = .7
P(Bc|A1) = .8 P(A1 Bc) = .56
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Bayes’ Theorem
P ( Ai ) P ( B| Ai )
P ( Ai | B )
P ( A1 ) P ( B| A1 ) P ( A2 ) P ( B| A2 ) ... P ( An ) P ( B| An )
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Example: L. S. Clothiers
Posterior Probabilities
Given the planning board’s recommendation not to
approve the zoning change, we revise the prior
probabilities as follows.
P ( A1 ) P ( B| A1 ) (. 7 )(. 2 )
P ( A1| B )
P ( A1 ) P ( B| A1 ) P ( A2 ) P ( B| A2 ) (. 7)(. 2 ) (. 3)(. 9)
= .34
Conclusion
The planning board’s recommendation is good news
for L. S. Clothiers. The posterior probability of the
town council approving the zoning change is .34
versus a prior probability of .70.
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Tabular Approach
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Tabular Approach
A1 .7 .2
A2 .3 .9
1.0
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Tabular Approach
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Tabular Approach
A1 .7 .2 .14
A2 .3 .9 .27
1.0
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Tabular Approach
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Tabular Approach
A1 .7 .2 .14
A2 .3 .9 .27
1.0 P(B) = .41
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Tabular Approach
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Tabular Approach
A1 .7 .2 .14 .3415
A2 .3 .9 .27 .6585
1.0 P(B) = .41 1.0000
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End of Chapter 4
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