Biosynthesis of

carbohydrates
 metabolism
1. Catabolic reactions: (mitochondria)
Complex molecules  Simple
molecules + Energy
2. Anabolic reactions: (cytoplasm)
Biosynthetic reactions
Simple molecules + Energy (in cell)
 Complex molecules
 Biosynthetic
pathways
Anabolic and catabolic reactions have different
pathways.
 Flexibility: If a normal biosynthetic pathway
is blocked, the organism can often use the
reverse of the degradation pathway for
synthesis.

Catabolic
Complex Molecule Simple Molecules
Biosynthetic
 Overcoming Le Châtelier’s principle
If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions,
the position of equilibrium moves to counteract the change.

(Glucose)phosphorylase
n + Pi (Glucose)n-1 + Glucose 1- phosphate
Glycogen Glycogen
(one unit smaller)

phosphorylase
(Glucose)n-1+ UDP-glucose (Glucose)n+ UDP
Glycogen Glycogen
(one unit larger)
Most synthetic pathways are
different from the degradation
pathways. Most also differ in
location and in energy
requirements.
 Carbohydrate
synthesis
1. Synthesis of glucose in animals
and humans.
2. Conversion of glucose to other
carbohydrates.
In plants

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6 H12 O6 + 6H2O

(from sun)

Photosynthesis
In animals
When energy is not needed, glucose can be
synthesis by gluconeogenesis.
Gluconeogenesis
One of the two pathways by
which the liver maintains
blood sugar during times of
fasting.
Red blood cells

Lactate

Gluconeo-
genesis
From a Greek word,
“gluco”-sugar, “neo”-new,
“genesis”- formation
-formation of new sugar
 Synthesis of Glucose
Gluconeogenesis:
The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate
sources.
- Intermediates of Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle are
used to produce glucose.
*Gluconeogenesis is not the exact reversal of
glycolysis:
pyruvate to glucose does not occur by reversing the
steps of glucose to pyruvate.
 gluconeogenesis
- Three irreversible steps in glycolysis:
1.Phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate + ATP.
2.Fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
3. Glucose to glucose 6-phosphate.
- These three steps are reversed in gluconeogenesis,
but by different reactions and using different enzymes.
 gluconeogenesis
- a mechanism animals use to keep maintain blood
glucose levels
-Takes place mainly in liver
-Takes place in the cytosol degradation of glycogen
(glycogenosis) is another mechanics
 gluconeogenesis
- Important precursors of glucose are 3
carbon lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and certain
a.a.
- glycolysis and gluconeogenesis share 7 of
10 steps
- gluconeogenesis has 3 bypass steps –
bypass the irreversible steps of glycolysis
 Central role of oxalo-
Glycerol
Lactic acid
acetate in
gluconeogenesis
Anything that can undergo net
conversion to oxaloacetate can
result in glucose.

* Note that acetyl-CoA does NOT result in

glucose.
 gluconeogenesis
- 1st bypass: conversion of pyruvate to PEP
- requires 2 reactions:
* Pyruvate converted to oxaloacetate by action of pyruvate
carboxylase using ATP
* oxaloacetate to PEP by action of PEP carboxykinase using
GTP
Pyruvate carboxylase reaction

Acetyl-CoA is a
positive effector
 Transport as malate
- No transporter for oxaloacetate, so it is
converted to malate for transport to cytosol.
- Enzyme is malate dehydrogenase.
- Reverse reaction in cytosol to regenerate
OA, also producing NADH.
PEP carboxykinase
rEACTIOn
 gluconeogenesis
- gluconeogenesis has 3 bypass steps – bypass the irreversible
steps of glycolysis
Bypass II: FBPase-1 reaction
 gluconeogenesis
- gluconeogenesis has 3 bypass steps – bypass the irreversible
steps of glycolysis
 Bypass III: glucose 6
phosphatase rEACTIOn
Only four enzymes are unique.
(compare to glycolysis)

ATP is produced in glycolysis

and used up in gluconeogenesis.
 Cori cycle
Lactate from glycolysis in muscle is
transported to the liver,
where gluconeogenesis converts it back to
glucose.
 conversion of Glucose to other
carbohydrates (in animals)
Conversion of glucose to other hexoses (isomers)
and synthesis of di- or polysaccharides.
Activation of glucose by Uridine Triphosphate
(UTP) (similar to ATP) to form UDP-glucose.
 CH2 OH O
H O H
H HN
OH H O O
HO O-P-O-P-OCH2 O N
- - O
H OH O O H H
H H
HO OH
Uridine diphosphate glucose
(UDP-glucose)
Uridine diphosphate glucose
(UDP-glucose)
 conversion of Glucose to other
carbohydrates (in animals)
Glycogenesis: conversion of glucose to glycogen.
Excess glucose is storedHinCHform of
OH CH OH
HO H O H
glycogen.
O 2 2 O
HH HN HN
H OH
OH O H O O O
-
Enzyme
HO HO O-P-O-P-OCHO-P-O-P-OCH O- 2N O N
Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP UDP-glucose- + pyrophosphate
2
O
O- OH OO HH
- -
H OHH O OH H
(Glucose)n + UDP-glucose (Glucose)n+ 1 + UDP H H H H
HO OH
HO OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH O O
UridineO UridineO
diphosphatediphosphate
glucose
H glucose
Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP + (Glucose)nH H H(UDP-glucose)
H
H
(UDP-glucose) HN HN
OH H OH O H O O O
-
(Glucose)
HO n+ 1HO+ UDP + pyrophosphate
O-P-O-P-OCH O-P-O-P-OCH
2 O- 2N O N
- - - O
- O
H OHH O OH O OH O HH H
H H H H
Same process to produce di- and polysaccharides. HO OH
HO OH
Uridine diphosphate
Uridine diphosphate glucose glucose
The biosynthesis of other di-, oligo-, and
polysaccharides also uses this common activation
step to form an appropriate UDP derivative.