EMBRYOLOGY

THE BEGINNING
 Course Outline
• Define Embryology
• Know the significance of Embryology
• Be able to define key embryologic terms
• Understand the periods of development of the
human in both prenatal and post natal periods
 Definition of Embryology
• Study of embryos
• Prenatal development of embryos and fetuses
• Developmental anatomy is the field of embryology
concerned with the changes that cells, tissues, organs, and
the body as a whole undergo from a germ cell of each
parent to the resulting adult
• Teratology deals with abnormal development (birth defects)
• concerned with various genetic and/or environmental
factors that disturb normal development and produce birth
defects
 SIGNIFICANCE OF EMBRYOLOGY
• Links prenatal development and obstetrics, perinatal
medicine, pediatrics, and clinical anatomy
• Develops knowledge concerning the beginning of
human life and the changes occurring during
prenatal development.
• helps to understand the causes of variations in
human structure.
• Illuminates gross anatomy and explains how normal
and abnormal relations develop.
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

OOCYTEE SPERM
ZYGOTE
(Ovum) (Spermatozoon)

Tortipotent
 Cell division
Migration

MULTICELLULAR
Apotosis
ZYGOTE HUMAN BEING

Differentiation

Growth Re-arrangement
Periods of development

EMBRYONIC FETAL INFANCY CHILDHOOD ALDOLESCENCE EARLY

ADULT

PRENATAL PERIOD POST NATAL PERIOD

Changes occur throughout development

TERMINOLOGY USED IN EMBRYOLOGY

• Oocyte → female germ or sex cells produced

in the ovaries.
– Mature oocytes are called secondary oocytes
• Sperm /spermatozoon, → male germ cell
produced in the testes (testicles)
• Zygote → a cell resulting from the union of an
oocyte and a sperm during fertilization
– It is the beginning of a new human being
• Gestational Age → the age of the embryo/fetus
usually expressed in weeks
• Cleavage → series of mitotic cell divisions of the
zygote that result in the formation of early
embryonic cells called blastomeres
• Compaction → blastomeres change their shape
and tightly align themselves against each other to
form a compact ball
• Morula → solid mass of 12 to 32 blastomeres
formed by cleavage of a zygote
• occurs 3 to 4 days after fertilization in F tube
• Blastocyst → morula is converted into a blastocyst when a
fluid-filled cavity (the blastocystic cavity), develops inside it
– Blastocyst forms in the uterine cavity 2-3 days after formation of
the morula
• Implantation → the process during which the blastocyst
attaches to the endometrium and subsequently embeds in
it
• Preplantation period → time between fertilization and the
beginning of implantation
• approximately 6 days
• Gastrulation → formation of a three-layered or
trilaminar embryonic disc in the third week
from the blastocyst
– These three germ layers of the gastrula (ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm) subsequently
differentiate into the tissues and organs of the
embryo
• Neurulation → development of the neural tube
from the neural plate during the 3rd and 4th
week of gestation
• It is the first appearance of the nervous system
and the next stage after gastrulation
• Embryo → developing human during its early
stages of development
– The embryonic period extends from fertilization to
the end of the eighth week (56 days)
– all major structures begin to form
– The size of embryos is given as crown-rump
length, which is measured from the vertex of the
cranium (crown of head) to the rump (buttocks).
• Stages of Prenatal Development → variable
period it takes for embryos to develop certain
morphologic characteristics
• Stage 1 begins at fertilization and embryonic
development ends at stage 23, which occurs on
day 56
• The fetal period begins on day 57 and ends
when the fetus is completely outside the
mother
• Conceptus → all structures that develop from
the zygote, both embryonic & extraembryonic
= embryo + embryonic part of the placenta
and its associated membranes: amnion,
chorionic (gestational) sac, and umbilical
vesicle or yolk sac
• Primordium → beginning or first discernible
indication of an organ or structure
• Fetus → developing human from the ninth
week of gestation to birth
– differentiation and growth of the tissues and
organs formed during the embryonic period occur
• Abortion premature stoppage of development
and expulsion of a conceptus from the uterus
or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is
viable-capable of living outside the uterus
• Trimester → period of three calendar months
during a pregnancy
– Obstetricians commonly divide the 9-month
period of gestation into three trimesters
– The most critical stages of development occur
during the first trimester (13 weeks) when
embryonic and early fetal development is
occurring
• Postnatal Period → period occurring after
birth
• Infancy →earliest period of extrauterine life
• roughly the first year after birth
• An infant aged 1 month or younger is called a
newborn or neonate
• Transition from intrauterine to extrauterine
existence requires many critical changes, especially
in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems
• The body grows rapidly during infancy
• total length increases by approximately one half
and weight is usually tripled
• By 1 year of age, most children have six to eight
teeth.
• Childhood → period from approximately 13
months until puberty
• primary (deciduous) teeth continue to appear
and are later replaced by the secondary
(permanent) teeth
• the rate of body growth slows down in late
childhood
• Just before puberty, however, growth accelerates
→ the prepubertal growth spurt
• Adolescence is the period from approximately
11 to 19 years of age
• characterized by rapid physical and sexual
maturation
• extends from puberty-until the attainment of
adult physical, mental, and emotional maturity
• The ability to reproduce is achieved during
adolescence
• Adulthood →18 and 21 years
• Ossification and growth are virtually
completed during early adulthood (21 to 25
years)
• developmental changes occur very slowly
 Gametogenesis:
• Is the conversion of Germ Cells into Male and
Female Gametes
Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs)
• Gamets are formed from PGCs
• PGCs develop in the epiblast in the second week
and then migrate to the yolk sac
• 4th week → PGCs migrate from yolk sac and
arrived at the gonads at the end of the fifth week
• During migration and when the PGCs arrive at
the gonads, they undergo mitotic division to
increase their number
• In preparation for fertilization, germ cells
undergo gametogenesis
• Gametogenesis = meiosis + cytodifferentiation
to complete their maturation
• Meiosis → reduces chromosome number
• Cytodifferentiation → completes maturation
of gamates
3 week embryo with PGCs in the wall of the yolk sac
 Clinical Correlates
Primordial Germ Cells and Teratomas
• Teratomas → tumors that contain a variety of
tissues from one or more germ layers and are
foreign to the anatomic site where they are
found
• Thought to arise from a pluripotent stem cell
that can differentiate into any of the three
germ layers or their derivatives
Possible Explanations for Origin of Teratomas

• PGCs that have strayed from their normal

migratory paths could be responsible for some
of these tumors
• epiblast cells migrating through the primitive
streak during gastrulation
 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

• This states that the trait of an offspring is

determined by genes on chromosomes
inherited from the father and mother
• Humans have approximately 35,000 genes on
46 chromosomes
• linked genes are genes on the same
chromosome and tend to be inherited
together
• somatic cell have 23 homologous pairs of
chromosome to form the diploid number of 46
– 22 pairs are matching chromosomes called autosomes
– one pair is sex chromosomes
• sex pair is XX is a genet female while and XY is a
male
• One chromosome of each pair is derived from the
male gamet (sperm) and the other from the
female gamat (oocyte)
• Each gamet has only haploid number of 23
chromosome
CELL CYCLE
 G_2​Phase
*the cell grows more, makes proteins
and organelles, and begins to
reorganize its contents in preparation
for mitosis
*The G_1​, S, and G_2​phases
together are known as interphase

S phase : G_1​phase/first gap phase

*the cell synthesizes a *cell grows physically large
complete copy of the DNA in *copies organelles
its nucleus *makes the molecular
*duplicates a microtubule- building blocks
organizing structure called
the centrosome that helps
separate DNA during M
phase.
• G_1​phase/first gap phase
– cell grows physically large
– copies organelles
– makes the molecular building blocks
• S phase :
– the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in
its nucleus
– duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure
called the centrosome that helps separate DNA
during M phase.
• G_2​Phase
• the cell grows more, makes proteins and
organelles, and begins to reorganize its
contents in preparation for mitosis
• The G_1​, S, and G_2​phases together are
known as interphase
MITOSIS
•  Mitosis is preceded by synthesis of its DNA
in the S phase and the nucleus now contains
chromosomes with two connected copies
known as sister Chromatids
•  the cell also make centrosome, an organelle
that will play a key role in orchestrating
mitosis, so there are two centrosomes
• Building up some structures
– Chromosomes condensing
– The mitotic spindle begins to form → organize the
chromosomes and move them around during
mitosis
– The spindle grows between the centrosomes as
they move apart
• Breakdown other structures
– The nucleolus disappears
– Nuclear envelop breaks down
• mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize
the chromosomes.
• The chromosomes finish condensing, so they
are very compact.
• The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing
the chromosomes.
• The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of
the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes
Metaphase
• in metaphase, the spindle has captured all the
chromosomes and lined them up at the
middle of the cell, ready to divide.
• All the chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate 
• At this stage, the two kinetochores of each
chromosome should be attached to
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
• Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will
check to make sure that all the chromosomes are
at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores
correctly attached to microtubules
• This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps
ensure that the sister chromatids will split evenly
between the two daughter cells when they
separate in the next step
• If a chromosome is not properly aligned or
attached, the cell will halt division until the
problem is fixed
• In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate
from each other and are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell
• The protein “glue” that holds the sister
chromatids together is broken down, allowing
them to separate. Each is now its own
chromosome
• The chromosomes of each pair are pulled
towards opposite ends of the cell.
• Microtubules not attached to chromosomes
elongate and push apart, separating the poles
and making the cell longer
• All of these processes are driven by motor
proteins, molecular machines that can “walk”
along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo
• In mitosis, motor proteins carry chromosomes
or other microtubules as they walk.
• In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and
it starts to re-establish its normal structures as
cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes
place
• The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building
blocks.
• Two new nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes
• Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear
• The chromosomes begin to decondense and return
to their “stringy” form
• Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to
form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis
• It may start in either anaphase or telophase,
depending on the cell, and finishes shortly
after telophase
• In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile,
pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a
drawstring
• The “drawstring” is a band of filaments made
of a protein called actin, and the pinch crease
is known as the cleavage furrow. 
• cytokinesis finishes → two new cells, each
with a complete set of chromosomes identical
to those of the mother cell
• The daughter cells can now begin their own
cellular “lives”
 GAMETOGENESIS
• gametes, are specialized sex cells
• Male gamet = sperm
• Female gamet = oocyte
• Each gamet contains half the number of
chromosomes (haploid number) present in
somatic (body)
• The chromosome number is reduced during
meiosis
• spermatogenesis is the maturation of the
sperm
• Oogenesis is the maturation of the oocyte
• Gametogenesisis the process of formation
and development of gametes
– Prepares these sex cells for fertilization
• affects the chromosome and the cytoplasm
– chromosome number is reduced by half
– shape of the cells is altered
 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis involves two (2) meiotic cell divisions
• takes place in germ cells only
• Diploid germ cells give rise to haploid gametes
(sperms and oocytes)
• Provides constancy of the chromosome number
from generation to generation by reducing the
chromosome number from diploid to haploid,
thereby producing haploid gametes.
• Allows random assortment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes between the gametes.
• Relocates segments of maternal and paternal
chromosomes by crossing over of
chromosome segments, which "shuffles" the
genes and produces a recombination of
genetic material
 First Meiotic Division
• is a reduction division
• the chromosome number is reduced from diploid to
haploid by pairing of homologous chromosomes
• chromosomes (one from each parent) pair during
prophase and separate during anaphase, with one
representative of each pair randomly going to each pole
of the meiotic spindle
• The spindle connects to the chromosome at the
centromere
• At this stage, they are double-chromatid chromosomes.
• The X and Y chromosomes are not homologs,
but they have homologous segments at the tips
of their short arms
• They pair in these regions only
• By the end of the first meiotic division, each
new cell formed (secondary spermatocyte or
secondary oocyte) has the haploid chromosome
number (double-chromatid chromosomes)
• In meiosis; cell division takes place in the germ cells to
generate male and female gametes, sperm and egg cells,
respectively
• two meiotic divisions occur - meiosis I and meiosis II,
• The number of chromosomes is reduced to the haploid
number of 23
• Meiosis is similar to mitosis in that the male and
female germ cells (spermatocytes and primary oocytes)
replicate their DNA at the beginning, so that each of the
46 chromosomes is duplicated into sister chromatids
 SOME DIFFENCES B/N MEIOSIS & MITOSIS
• synapsis occur in meiosis but not in mitosis
– homologous chromosomes then align themselves
in pairs
– this pairing is exact/point for point for the
autosomes but does not happen in XY
chromosome
– Homologous pairs then separate into two
daughter cells
– Shortly thereafter in meiosis II, sister chromatids
form
– Each gamete then contains 23 chromosomes.
 Crossover
• Is interchange of chromatid segments
between paired homologous chromosomes
– Segments of chromatids break and are exchanged
as homologous chromosomes separate
– points of interchange are temporarily united and
form an X-like structure, a chiasma
– crossovers are most frequent between genes that
are far apart on a chromosome. 
 result of meiotic divisions
• genetic variability is enhanced through
crossover
• each germ cell contains a haploid number of
chromosomes
– diploid number of 46 is restored at fertilization
 Polar Bodies
• during meiosis; one primary oocyte gives rise to four
daughter cells, each with 22 plus 1 X chromosomes
• only one of these develops into a mature gamete, the
oocyte
• the other three become polar bodies which degenerate
during subsequent development.
• The primary spermatocyte gives rise to four daughter
cells, two with 22 plus 1 X chromosomes and two with
22 plus 1 Y chromosomes
• However, all four develop into mature gametes
Clinical Correlates
Birth Defects and Spontaneous Abortions

• Chromosomal and Genetic Factors

• numerical or structural chromosome
abnormalities are important causes of birth
defects and spontaneous abortions
• An estimated 50% of conceptions end in
spontaneous abortion
• 50% of these abortuses have major
chromosome abnormalities
• 25% of conceptuses have a major chromosomal
defect
• Chromosomal abnormalities account for 7% of
major birth defects
• The most common chromosomal abnormalities
in abortuses are 45,X (Turner syndrome),
triploidy, and trisomy 16
• gene mutations account for 18% of birth defect
 Numerical Abnormalities
• Somatic cells have 46 chromosomes (diploid) =
2n
• Gametes contain 23 (haploid) =n
• Euploid = exact multiple of n (diploid or triploid)
• Aneuploid = chromosome number that is not
euploid
– Extrachromosome = trisomy
– Missing chromosome = monosomy
• Abnormal chromosome number can occur in
mitosis or in meiosis
• Nondisjuction occur during meiosis I
when the two members of the homologous
chromosome fail to separate and one
daughter cell receives both members
homologous instead of one pair going to each
daughter cell
– One daughter cell ends up with 24 chromosome
and the other 22
• When, at fertilization, a gamete having 23
chromosomes fuses with a gamete having 24,
the result is an individual with 47
chromosomes (trisomy)
• When a gamete having 23 chromosomes fuses
with a gamete with 22 chromosomes, the
result is an individual with 45 chromosomes
(monosomy)
 Translocations
• A chromosome breaks, and pieces of one
chromosome attach to another
• Balanced translocation → breakage and
reunion between two chromosomes occur
without critical genetic material being lost and
individuals are normal
• Unbalanced translocation → breakage result
into altered phenotype
• unbalanced translocations between the long
arms of chromosomes 14 and 21 during
meiosis I or II produce gametes with an extra
copy of chromosome 21, one of the causes of
DOWN SYNDROME
 Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
• caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy
21)
MANIFESTATIONS
• growth retardation
• varying degrees of mental retardation;
• craniofacial abnormalities, including upward slanting
eyes
• epicanthal folds
• flat facies, and small ears
• cardiac defects
• hypotonia
• These individuals also have relatively high incidences of
leukemia, infections, thyroid dysfunction, and
premature aging
• nearly all develop signs of Alzheimer disease after age
35
• 95% of cases are caused by trisomy 21 resulting from
meiotic nondisjunction, and in 75% of these instances,
nondisjunction occurs during oocyte formation
• The incidence of Down syndrome 1 in 2,000
conceptuses for women under age 25(Fewer/not
common), 1 in 300 at age 35 (More common) and 1 in
100 at age 40 (Most Common)
 Trisomy 18 (Rare)
• mental retardation
• congenital heart defects
• low-set ears
• flexion of fingers and hand
• Micrognathia
• renal anomalies
• Syndactyly
• malformations of the skeletal system
• Occurs in 1 in 5,000 newborns
• 85% are lost between 10 weeks of gestation and term, whereas
those born alive usually die by age 2 months.
 Trisomy 13 (Not Common)
• mental retardation
• Holoprosencephaly
• congenital heart defects
• Deafness
• cleft lip and palate
• eye defects, such as microphthalmia,
anophthalmia, and coloboma
• Occurs 1 in 20,000 live births, and over 90% of the
infants die in the first month after birth
Klinefelter Syndrome{Trisomy with xxxy}
• found only in males
• usually detected at puberty

Occurences
• Sterility
• testicular atrophy
• hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules
• usually gynecomastia
• The cells have 47 chromosomes with a sex
• chromosomal complement of the XXY
• sex chromatin body (Barr body)
• Occurs in approximately 1 in 500 males.
• Caused by nondisjunction of the XX homologues
• patients with Klinefelter syndrome may have 48
chromosomes: 44 autosomes and 4 sex
chromosomes (XXXY).
• Although mental retardation is not generally part
of the syndrome, the more X chromosomes there
are, the more likely there will be some degree of
mental impairment.
 Turner Syndrome(45X)
• The only monosomy compatible with life
• 98% of affected fetuses aborted
• Fetuses born alive are females with
• No ovaries
• Short stature
• Webbed neck
• lymphedema of the extremities
• skeletal deformities
• broad chest with widely spaced nipples
• In 80% of these women, nondisjunction in the male
gamete is the cause
• structural abnormalities of
*the X chromosome or
*mitotic nondisjunction
resulting in mosaicism are the cause
 Gene Mutations
• Many birth defect result from mutation
• Mutation refers to change in structure or
function of a gene
• Single gene mutation Vs multiple gene mutation
• With the exception of the X and Y genes in the
male, all genes exist in pairs with one of the pair
inherited from the father and the other from the
mother
• This gene pair is known as an Allele
• Dominant Vs Recessive Mutation
• Dominant if only one of the gene pair in the
allele is mutated but able to expressed itself
• Recessive if both genes in the allele must be
mutated before the condition is expressed
• Also X-linked recessive if the X chromosome
in the male is affected
• mutations can also result in inborn errors of
metabolism like phenylketonuria,
homocystinuria, and galactosemia
  
Morphological Changes During Maturation of the Gametes
 

Maturation of Oocytes
• Begins before Birth
• primordial germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the
ovary
• they differentiate into oogonia and undergo a number
of mitotic divisions to increase their number
• by the end of the 3rd month the oogonia form clusters
surrounded by a layer of flat epithelial cells known as
follicular cells that originate from surface epithelium
covering the ovary
• The oogonia take one of two pathways :
• majority continue to divide by mitosis with
rapid increase in their number
• some of them arrest their cell division in
prophase of meiosis I and form primary oocytes
• by the fifth month of prenatal development,
the total number of germ cells in the ovary
reaches its maximum, estimated at 7 million
• cell death ensues and many oogonia as well as
primary oocytes become atretic
• By the seventh month:
• majority of oogonia have degenerated except
for a few near the surface
• All surviving primary oocytes have entered
prophase of meiosis I, and most of them are
individually surrounded by a layer of flat
epithelial cells
• A primary oocyte, together with its
surrounding flat epithelial cells, is known as a
primordial follicle
Oogonia +primary oocyes primary oocytes predominate No oogonia
• Maturation of Oocytes Continues at Puberty
• Near birth all primary oocytes are in prophase of
meiosis I
• They are arrested in the resting stage of
prophase known as diplotene stage characterized
by lacy network of chromatin
• This arrested state is produced by oocyte
maturation inhibition (OMI), a small peptide
secreted by follicular cells
• 600,000 to 800,000 primary oocytes are present in
the ovary at birth
• most oocytes become atretic during childhood
• approximately 400,000 are present by the beginning
of puberty
• fewer than 500 will be ovulated
• Some oocytes remain dormant in the diplotene stage
and reach maturation later in life
• primary oocytes are vulnerable to damage as they age
→ increased risk of having kids with chromosomal
abnormality with increasing maternal age
• At puberty the female has pool of growing follicles
• this pool is maintained from the supply of
primordial follicles
• Each month, 15 to 20 follicles selected from this
pool begin to mature, passing through three
stages :
1. primary or preantral
2. secondary or antral
3. preovulatory (Graafian follicle) occur about 37
hours before ovulation
• As the primary oocyte begins to grow, the flat
follicular cells surrounding it changes to
cuboidal cell
• The cuboidal cells proliferate to produce a
stratified epithelium of granulosa cells
– this unit is called a primary follicle
• Granulosa cells are separated from surrounding
stromal cells by a basement membrane called
theca folliculi
• zona pellucida is a layer of glycoproteins on the
surface of the oocytes ecreted by the granulosa cells
and the oocyte
• As follicles continue to grow, cells of the theca folliculi
organize into an inner layer of secretory cells, the
theca interna, and an outer fibrous capsule, the theca
externa
• Also, small, finger-like processes of the follicular cells
extend across the zona pellucida and interdigitate
with microvilli of the plasma membrane of the oocyte
• These processes are important for transport of
materials from follicular cells to the oocyte
• As development continues, fluid-filled spaces appear
between granulosa cells
• These spaces coalesce to form the antrum, the the follicle
with the antrum is termed a secondary (vesicular) follicle
• Granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte remain intact and
form the cumulus oophorus
• At maturity, the secondary follicle may be 25 mm or more
in diameter
– It is surrounded by :
– theca interna, which secrete steroid secretion and rich in blood
vessels,
– theca externa, which gradually merges with the ovarian stroma
 • During each ovarian cycle
• Remember that before
15-20 primary oocyte start
puberty the primary
maturation but only one
oocyte is arrested in will reach full maturation
prophase of meoisis I
• The rest degenerate and
become atretic
• When the secondary follicle is mature, a surge
in luteinizing hormone (LH) induces the
preovulatory growth phase
• Meiosis I is completed, resulting in formation
of two daughter cells of unequal size, each
with 23 double-structured chromosomes
• One cell, the secondary oocyte, receives most
of the cytoplasm
• The first polar body, receives practically none
• The cell then enters meiosis II but arrests in
metaphase approximately 3 hours before
ovulation
• Meiosis II is completed only if the oocyte is
fertilized
• Without fertilization, the cell degenerates
approximately 24 hours after ovulation
• The first polar body also undergoes a second
division
 Spermatogenesis
• Maturation of Sperm Begins at Puberty
• Transformation of spermatogonia into
spermatozoa
• Spermatogenesis occurs in the testis
• At birth, germ cells are found in the sex cords
of the testis as surrounded by supporting cells
• Sex cord become canalized to form
seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis
occur
• primordial germ cells give rise to
spermatogonial stem cells
• stem cells form type A spermatogonia
• Production of type A spermatogonia marks
the initiation of spermatogenesis
• Type A cells undergo a limited number of
mitotic divisions to form a clone of cells
• The last cell division produces type B
spermatogonia
• Type B Spermatogonia divide to form primary
spermatocytes
• The primary spermatocye enters prophase of
meiosis I and stay there for 22 days
• This is followed by rapid completion of meiosis
I and formation of secondary spermatocytes
• During the second meiotic division, these cells
immediately begin to form haploid spermatids
• cytokinesis remain incomplete during these
processes, so that successive cell generations
are joined by cytoplasmic bridges
• spermatogonia and spermatids remain
embedded in deep recesses of Sertoli cells
throughout their development
• Thus, Sertoli cells
• support and protect the germ cells
• participate in their nutrition
• assist in the release of mature spermatozoa
 Spermiogenesis =
Transformation of Spermatid into spermatozoon
 Events in Spermitogenesis

• formation of the acrosome, which covers half

of the nuclear surface
– contains enzymes to assist in penetration of the
egg and its surrounding layers during fertilization
• condensation of the nucleus
• formation of neck, middle piece, and tail
• shedding of most of the cytoplasm
It takes approximately 74 days for
spermatogenesis to complete

approximately 300 million sperm cells

are produced daily

spermatozoa obtain full motility in the

epididymis
 
 Regulation of Spermatogenesis
1. LH produced in the anterior pituitary
• binds to receptors on Leydig cells and stimulates
testosterone production
• Testosterone then binds to Sertoli cells to
promote spermatogenesis
2. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• binds to Sertoli cells and stimulates testicular
fluid production and synthesis of intracellular
androgen receptor proteins
Oocyte Abnormalities
1. Ovarian follicle with two
or three oocytes
• multipl pregnancy
• Usually degenerate
before reaching maturity
2. Oocyte with two or
three nuclei
• Die before reaching
maturity
Abnormalities of Spermatozoa
• up to 10% of all
spermatozoa have
observable defects
1. Two heads
2. Giants or dwarfs
3. Tail abnormal
4. No head
• Sperm with morphologic abnormalities lack
normal motility and probably do not fertilize
oocytes