Basic Logical Concepts

Deduction and Induction

How to Recognize an Argument

• Step 1: Count the claims.

If the passage has fewer than two claims, it is neither an argument nor an
explanation.
If it has two or more claims, proceed to Step 2.

• Step 2: Determine whether one of the claims offers a reason for another claim.
If no reason(s) are offered, the passage is neither an argument nor an
explanation.
If there is a reason offered, proceed to Step 3.

• Step 3: Identify the purpose of the reason(s).

Do the reason(s) offer proof to convince the reader to accept a conclusion?
If the answer is “yes,” then the passage is an argument.
Do the reason(s) offer an explanation for why a given fact is true? If
the answer is “yes,” then the passage is an explanation.
Argument, Explanation or Neither?

• Three explanations have been offered for the extinction of the

dinosaurs. First, a global rise in temperature caused the procreation
mechanism of male dinosaurs to stop functioning. Second, certain
flowering plants (namely, angio) evolved after the dinosaurs evolved;
these plants were toxic for the dinosaurs, which ate them and died.
Third, a large comet struck the earth, causing a cloud of dust that
blocked out the sunlight, which in turn created a frigid climate for
which the dinosaurs were ill suited. Now, there is no way to get any
evidence either for or against the first hypothesis. And the second
hypothesis is unlikely because it is probable that angios were in
existence 10 million years before the dinosaurs became extinct.
There is, however, some evidence in favor of the third hypothesis. If
the earth was struck by a large comet at the time the dinosaurs
became extinct (some 65 million years ago), then there should be
unusually large amounts of iridium (a rare metal) in the sediments of
that period, for most of the iridium on Earth comes from comets and
other objects from outer space. And, as a matter of fact, unusually
large amounts of iridium have been found in the sediments of that
period. So, the third explanation seems best.
Deductive & Inductive Arguments
• Deductive
• Rigorous, inescapable logic (guarantees the conclusion)
• All philosophers like logic. Ned is a philosopher. So, Ned likes logic.
• Inductive
• Plausible conclusion (without guaranteeing it)
• Every ruby so far discovered has been red. So probably all rubies are red.
Deductive Arguments?
• All biologists are scientists. John is not a scientist. So, John is not a
biologist.
• All bats are mammals. All mammals are warm-blooded. So, all bats
are warm-blooded.

• If Alice stole the diamonds, then she is a thief. And Alice did steal the
diamonds. Hence, Alice is a thief.
• Either Bill has a poor memory or he is lying. Bill does not have a poor
memory. Therefore, Bill is lying.
How to differentiate Deductive from
Inductive Arguments?
• The indicator word test
• asks whether there are any indicator words that provide clues whether
a deductive or inductive argument is being offered.
• Certainly, absolutely, conclusively
Vs.
• Probably, likely, chances are that

• Kristin is a law student.

Most law students own laptops.
So, probably Kristin owns a laptop.

• Pleasure is not the same thing as happiness. The occasional self-

destructive behaviour of the rich and famous confirms this far too
vividly.
How to differentiate Deductive from
Inductive Arguments?...
• The strict necessity test
• asks whether the conclusion follows from the premises with strict logical
necessity. If it does, then the argument is deductive.

• All philosophers like logic.

Ted is a philosopher.
So, Ted likes logic.
How to differentiate Deductive from
Inductive Arguments?...
• The common pattern test
• asks whether the argument exhibits a pattern of reasoning that is
characteristically deductive or inductive.

• If we are in Lahore, then we are in Pakistan

We are in Lahore
Therefore, we are in Pakistan
How to differentiate Deductive from
Inductive Arguments?...
• The principle of charity test
• When there are no clear indicators about whether an argument is deductive
or inductive, we fall back on this principle.

• Andy told me that he ate at Maxine’s Restaurant yesterday.

But Maxine’s was completely destroyed by fire less than a month ago.
It is certain, therefore, that Andy is either lying or mistaken.
Exercise
• Ali: Are there any good Italian restaurants in town?

Salman: Yeah, Luigi's is pretty good. I've had their Neapolitan rigatoni,
their lasagne col pesto, and their mushroom ravioli. I don't think you
can go wrong with any of their pasta dishes.
• Is this argument deductive or inductive? How can you tell?
Exercise...
• I wonder if I have enough cash to buy my Critical Thinking textbook as
well as my Brand Management and history textbooks. Let's see, I have
Rs.200. My BM textbook costs Rs.65 and my history textbook costs
Rs.52. My Critical Thinking textbook costs Rs.60. With taxes, that
should come to about Rs.190. Yep, I have enough.
Exercise...
• Mother: Don't give Billy that brownie. It contains walnuts, and I think
Billy is allergic to walnuts. Last week he ate some oatmeal cookies
with walnuts, and he broke out in a severe rash.

Father: Billy isn't allergic to walnuts. Don't you remember he ate

some walnut fudge ice cream at Melissa's birthday party last spring?
He didn't have any allergic reaction then.
Exercise...
• John is an atheist.
It necessarily follows that he doesn't believe in God

• Is this argument deductive or inductive? How can you tell?

Exceptions to Strict Necessity Test
• Even if by strict necessity, the conclusion does not necessarily follow,
we’ll take the argument as deductive if:
• The arguer clearly intended, through language or context, to offer a logically
conclusive argument
• The pattern of reasoning is typically deductive and nothing else indicates that
it is inductive

• Magellan’s ships sailed around the world. It necessarily follows,

therefore, that the earth is a sphere.
Exceptions to Strict Necessity Test...
• If I’m Bill Gates, then I’m mortal.
I’m not Bill Gates.
Therefore, I’m not mortal.