• Chemical bond

- Is the force that holds two atoms together in a

molecule or formula unit.
Types of Bonding:
Metal with nonmetal: electron transfer and Ionic
bonding.
Nonmetal with nonmetal: electron sharing and
Covalent bonding.
Metal with metal: electron pooling and Metallic
bonding.
Ions
Ionic compounds consists of oppositely charged
ions that have a strong “electrostatic attraction”
(electrical attraction between oppositely charged
ions) for each other.
Types:
Cations (+) fewer electrons than protons
- same as atomic number
Anions (-) more electrons than protons.
- same as atomic number
Neutron = atomic weight – atomic number
• The nature and magnitude of the charge of an ion depend
on the position of an element in the periodic table. In
forming an ion, an atom of a main group element losses or
gains electrons to obtain the electronic configuration of the
noble gas closed to it in the periodic table. This gives the
ion an especially stable electronic arrangement with a
completely filled shell of electrons that is, the electrons
completely fill the shell farthest from the nucleus. •
11 protons 11 protons
• 12 neutrons 12 neutrons
•
11 electrons loss of 1 e⁻ 10 electrons
Na atom (Na∙) Na cation (Na⁺)
1s²,2s²,2p⁶,3s¹ 1 electron 1s²,2s²,2p⁶ 8 electrons
in the outer shell in the outer shell
Na (group 1A) has an atomic number of 11, giving it 11 protons and
11 electrons in the neutral atom.
This gives Na 1 more electron than Neon (noble gas) closest to it in
the periodic table.
In losing 1 electron, Na forms a cation with a +1 charge, which still
has 11 protons, but now has only 10 electrons in its electron cloud.
What does the example mean in terms of valence
electrons?
A neutral Na atom with an electron configuration of 1s²,2s²,2p⁶,3s¹,
has a single (1) valence electron. Loss of this valence electron forms
a sodium cation (Na⁺), which has the especially stable configuration
of the noble gas Neon 1s²,2s²,2p⁶. The Na⁺ now has 8 electrons that
fill the 2s and 2p orbitals.
• Metals form cations
• By losing 1, 2, or 3 electrons, an atom forms “cation” with a
completely filled outer shell of electrons.
Magnesium (Mg) (group2A) has 12 protons and 12 electrons in the
neutral atom. This gives Mg 2 more electrons than Neon (Ne: noble
gas) closest to it in the periodic table. In losing 2 electrons, Mg
forms a “cation” with +2 charge, which still has 12 protons but now
has only 10 electrons in its electron cloud ( the space surrounding
the nucleus of an atom which contains electrons and comprises
most of the volume of an atom).
12 protons 12 protons
• 12 neutrons 12 neutrons
•
12 electrons Loss 2e⁻ 10 electrons
Mg atom (∙Mg∙) Mg cation (Mg²⁺)
1s²,2s²,2p⁶,3s² 1s²,2s²,2p⁶
2 electrons in the 8 electrons in the
outer shell outer shell
Na and Mg are examples of metals:
A neutral Chlorine (Cl) atom (group 7A) has 17 protons, and 17
electrons. This gives it 1 fewer electron than Argon (Ar: noble gas)
closest to it in the periodic table. By gaining 1 electron, Cl forms an
“anion” with -1 charge because it still has 17 protons, but now has 18
electrons in its electron cloud.
17 protons 17 protons
• •
18 neutrons 18 neutrons
17 electrons Gains 1e 18 electrons
Cl atom (Cl∙) 7VE Cl anion (∶Cl∶)
1s²,2s²,2p²,3s²,3p⁵ 1s²,2s²,2p⁶,3s²,3p⁶
7 electrons in the 8 electrons in the
outer shell outer shell
• Nonmetals form anions
• By gaining 1, 2, or sometimes 3 electrons, an atom forms an
“anion” with a completely filled outer shell of electrons.
Practice Exercises:
Write the element symbol (# of proton, neutron,
and electron), indicate the charge (cation/anion)
electronic configuration, # of valence electron,
and electron dot symbol of the following.
a. Calcium
b. Rubidium
c. Nitrogen
d. Iodine
Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Main
Group Elements:
• Metals form cations. For metals in groups 1A,2A, and
3A, the group number = the charge on the cation
Group 1A: M∙ Loss M⁺ + 1e⁻
1 Valence electron
M = Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺ Rb⁺, Cs⁺
Group 2A: ∙M∙ Loss M²⁺ + 2e⁻

2 Valence electrons
M = Be²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Sr,²⁺ Ba²⁺
Group 3A: M Loss M⁺³ + 3e⁻
3 Valence electrons
M = Al³⁺, Ga³⁺, In³⁺, Tl³⁺
• Nonmetals form anions. For nonmetals in groups (5A,
6A, 7A), the anion charge = 8- (the group number).
Group 5A: X + 3e⁻ Gained X⁻³
5 Valence electrons 8–5=3
X = N⁻³, P⁻³
Group 6A: X + 2e⁻ Gained X⁻²
6 Valence electrons 8–2=2
X = O⁻², S⁻², Se⁻²
Group 7A: X + 1e⁻ Gained X⁻
7 Valence electrons 8–7=1
X = F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻
Common Cations Derived from Transition Metals
Group 4A: T = Sn²⁺, Pb²⁺ Sn⁺⁴, Pb⁺⁴
Group 6B: T = Cr⁺² Cr⁺³
Group 7B: T = Mn²⁺
Group 8B: T = Fe⁺² Fe⁺³
Group 9B: T = Co⁺² Co⁺³
Group 10B: T = Ni⁺²
Group 1B: T = Cu⁺, Ag⁺, Au⁺ Cu⁺², Au⁺³
Group 2B: T = Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Hg²⁺, Hg₂⁺²
• Ionic bond
- Is the electrostatic force that holds ions together
in an ionic compound.
• Atoms of electrons with “low ionization
energies” tend to form cations. (IE – the energy in
(kJ) required to remove completely one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms or ions)
• Atoms with “high electron affinities” tend to
form anions. (EA - the energy change in (kJ)
accompanying the addition of one mole of electrons to
one mole of gaseous atoms or ions).
Example: Table salt/Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is formed by 2
atoms sharing an ionic bond.
₁₁Na has a relatively “low” electron negativity and is likely
to give up/loss its electrons.
₁₇Cl has a very “high” electron” negativity and is likely to
attract /gain electrons.
When the two atoms interact, the atoms given up by Na is
transferred to Cl, making Na⁺ a cation and Cl⁻ an anion.
The resulting bond is then formed between two
oppositely charge atoms.
∙∙ ∙∙
Na∙ + ∙Cl∶ Na⁺ + ∶Cl∶⁻
∙∙ ∙∙
General Rule:
• The elements most likely to form “cations” are the alkali
metals and alkaline earth metals (group 1A and 2B).
• The elements most likely to form “anions” are the
halogen (group 7A) and oxygen.
Example: A reaction of Lithium (Li) and Fluorine(F). (LiF)
When Li and F atoms come in contact with each other, the outer
1s valence electron of Li is transferred to the F atom. Using Lewis
dot symbol, we represent the reaction like this; ∙∙
∙∙
Li∙ + ∙F∶ Li⁺ + ∶F∶⁻
∙∙ ∙∙
1s²,2s¹ 1s²,2s²,2p⁵ 1s²(He) 1s²,2s²,2p⁶ (Ne)
Calcium burns with oxygen to form calcium oxide (CaO)
Assuming that diatomic O₂ molecule first splits into
separate atoms. We can represent the reaction with
Electron dot symbols;
∙∙ ∙∙
∙Ca∙ + ∙O∶ Ca²⁺ ∶O∶²⁻
∙ ∙∙
(Ar)4s² 1s².2s²,2p⁶ (Ar) (Ne)
• There is a transfer of 2 electrons from the Calcium (Ca) atom to
the Oxygen (O₂). Note that the resulting Ca ion (Ca⁺²) has the
Argon electron configuration (Ar), the Oxide ion (O²⁻)is an
isoelectronic (having the same number and configuration of
electron as another element) with Neon (Ne), and the compound
(CaO) is electrically neutral.
When Magnesium (Mg) reacts with Oxygen (O) at
elevated temperature, a white solid compound
Magnesium nitride (Mg₃O) forms.
∙∙ ∙∙
3∙Mg∙ + ∙O∶ 3Mg²⁺ + ∶O∶²⁻
∙ ∙∙
(Ne) 3s² 1s²,2s²,2p⁴ (Ne) (Ne)
2. Use the electron dot symbol to represent the
formation of Barium hydride (BaH₂).
Answer:

∙Ba∙ + 2∙H Ba²⁺ 2∶H∙⁻

(Xe)6s² 1s¹ (Xe) (He)
The Ionic Bonding Model:
Central Idea
• The transfer of electrons from metal atoms to
nonmetals to form ions that attract each other into a
solid compound.
• The total number of electrons lost by the metal atom/s
equals the total number of electrons gained by the
nonmetal atom/s,
Total # e lost (metal atom) = total # e gained (nonmetal) atoms.
The transfer of an electron from Lithium (Li) atom to
Fluorine (F) atom is depicted in 3 ways;
a. Electron configuration
Li + F Li⁺ + F⁻
(He)2s¹ (He)1s²,2s²,2p⁵ (He)2sˡ (Ne)1s²,2s²,2p⁶
b. Orbital diagram
Li + F Li + F
↑ ⇅ ⇅ ⇅ ⇅ ↑ ↑ ⇅ ⇅ ⇅ ⇅ ⇅

3. Lewis electron-dot symbol

∙∙ ∙∙
Li∙ + ∙F∶ Li⁺ + ∶F∶⁻
∙∙ ∙∙
Practice Exercise:
1. Calcium (Ca)burns in Oxygen (O)to form CaO.
Write its reaction charge, electron
configuration, orbital diagram and valence
electrons represented by Lewis electron-dot
symbol.
2. Barium (Ba)combines with hydrogen (H) to form
Barium hydride (BaH₂). Write its reaction
charge, electron configuration, orbital diagram
and valence electrons represented by Lewis
electron-dot symbol
Why Ionic Compounds Form:
Importance of Lattice Energy
Energy is “absorbed” during electron transfer. Why does
it occur? In view of this absorption of energy, why do
ionic substances exists at all?
The answer involves the enormous quantity of energy
“released” as the ions that form coalesce (merge or
unite) into a solid.
Lattice energy – is the energy required to completely
separate 1 mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous
ions.
1. The electron-transfer process
Consider the electron-transfer process for the formation of
lithium fluoride (LiF), which involves gaseous Li atom losing
an electron to a gaseous F atom gaining it.
• The first Ionization Energy (IE₁) of Li is the energy
absorbed when 1 mol of gaseous Li atoms losses 1 mol
of valence electrons.
Li (g) Li⁺(g) + e⁻ IE₁ = 520 kJ
• The first Electron Affinity (EA₁) of F is the energy release
when 1 mole of gaseous F atoms gains 1 mol of
electrons.
F (g) + e⁻ F⁻ (g) EA₁ = -328 kJ
• Taking the sum show that electron transfer by itself
requires energy.
Li (g) + F (g) Li⁺ (g) + F⁻ (g)
IE₁ + EA₁ = 520 kJ + -328 kJ
= 192 kJ

2. Other steps that absorbs energy

• The total energy needed prior to ion formation adds to
the sum of IE₁ and EA₁: metallic Li must be made into
gaseous atoms (161 kJ), and F molecules must be broken
into separate atoms (79.5 kJ).
3. Energy, Ions, and Ionic Compounds
Energy is usually released when a metal and a nonmetal
react to form a salt.
Example: Solid Potassium fluoride (KF)
It is formed by the reaction of K, a very reactive alkali metal,
and F, a highly reactive halogen. Potassium fluoride contains
K⁺ and F⁻ ions group in a crystalline lattice of alternating
cations and anions.
K atoms have low IE and readily lose their 4s¹ valence
electrons.
F atoms have high EA and gains the electron into a 2p
orbital.
Electron transfer occurs from K metal ions to F atoms during
KF formation.
 K∙ K⁺ + e IE = 419 kJ
1s²,2s²,2p⁶, 1s²,2s²,2p⁶
3s²,3p⁶,4s¹ 3s²,3p⁶
(Ar)4s¹ (Ar)
∙∙
∶F∙ + e⁻ F⁻ EA = -329 kJ
∙∙
1s²,2s²,2p⁵ 1s²,2s²,2p⁶
(He)2s²,2p⁵ (He)2s²,2p⁶
Properties of Ionic Compound:
1. Physical behavior
- Hard (does not dent (make depression in
something by hitting).
- Rigid (does not bend).
- Brittle (crack without deforming)
Cause: Ionic compounds crack when struck with enough force.
When a force moves, like charges near each other “repulsions”
cause a crack.
2. Electrical conductivity
- Do not conduct electricity in a solid state.
- Conduct electricity when melted or dissolved.
The solid consists of fixed ions, but when it melts or dissolves, the
ions can move and carry a current.
3. Thermal conductivity
- High melting point and much higher boiling point.
Covalent compounds / Molecular compounds
- Are compounds that contain only covalent bonds
- Are formed between atoms of a nonmetal and a
non-metal.
Covalent bond
- Is a force attracting two atoms together when 1 or more
pairs of electrons are “shared” between the bonded
atoms.
- Are formed when two nonmetals combine or a
metalloid bonds to a nonmetal.
- Connect the atoms in molecular (covalent compounds).
- Two electron bond in which the bonding atoms share
valence electrons.
- Atoms share electrons to attain the electronic
configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the
periodic table.
Valence bond theory/model – is a description of
covalent bonds involving pairs of valence electrons
localized in bonds between atoms.
• The structures we use to represent covalent
compounds is called the Lewis structure.
Lewis structure – is the representation of covalent
bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown either
as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone
pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms.
• Only valence electrons are shown in a Lewis structure.
Rules:
• Atoms with 1,2,3 valence electrons generally form 1,2,3
bonds.
• Atoms with 4 or more valence electrons form enough
bonds to give an octet (8 electrons in the outer shell).
• The number of covalent bonds of an atom can form is
determined by the number of electrons that the atom
must share to achieve the noble gas configuration
• Predicted # of bonds = 8 – # of valence electrons
• Number of bonds + number of lone pairs = 4
• Exemption: Hydrogen (H₂)
Example: Hydrogen atom (H₂)

H∙ + ∙H H∶H or H−H
2 electrons are shared

2e⁻ 2e⁻

Each electron in a shared pair is attracted to the nuclei of both atoms.

This attraction holds the two atoms in H₂ together and is responsible
for the formation of covalent bonds in other molecules.
Example: Fluorine (F₂)
∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
∶F∙ + ∙F∶ ∶F ∶ F∶ or ∶F − F∶ lone pair
∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
bonding pairs

8e⁻ 8e⁻
• Only 2 valence electrons participate in the formation of F₂. The
other non-bonding electrons are called “lone pairs”.
• Lone pairs/unshared pairs – are valence electrons that are not
involved in covalent bond formation.
• Bonding pairs – are shared electron pairs
• F₂ has 6 lone pairs of electrons and 1 bonding pair.
Water (H₂O)
∙∙ Central atom ∙∙ ∙∙
H∙ + ∙O∙ + ∙H H ∶ O ∶ H or H− O−H
∙∙ Terminal atom ∙∙ ∙∙
2e⁻ 8e⁻ 2e⁻

Lewis dot symbol for Oxygen with 2 unpaired electrons. O might

form 2 covalent bonds. Hydrogen has only 1 electron, it can form
only 1 covalent bond.
O atom has 2 lone pairs. H atom has no lone pair because its only
electron is used to form a bond.
Methane (CH₄)
H∙ H H
∙ ∙∙ ∣
H∙ ∙C∙ ∙H H ∶ C ∶ H or H− C − H
∙ ∙∙ ∣
H∙ H H

Methane has 4 bonding pairs, no lone pair.

Types of Covalent bonds:
1. Single bond – is formed when 2 atoms share 1
pair of electrons.
Example: Diatomic molecules (group 7A) H₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂,
At₂.
2. Double bond – is formed when 2 atoms share 2
pairs of electrons.
Example: Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
.. ∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
∶O∙ + ∙C∙ + ∙O∶ O∶∶C∶∶O or O=C=O
∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
8e⁻ 8e⁻ 8e⁻
Nitrous acid (HNO₂)
∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
H∙ + ∙O∙ + ∙N∙ + ∙O∶ H∶O∶N∶∶O∶ or H−O−N=O∶
∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
2e⁻ 8e⁻ 8e⁻ 8e⁻
3. Triple bond – is formed when 3 shared pairs join
the same 2 atoms.
Example: Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
∙ ∙
H∙ + ∙C∙ + ∙N∶ H∶C∶∶∶N∶ or H−C≡N∶
∙ ∙ 2e⁻ 8e⁻ 8e⁻
Acetylene molecule (C₂H₂)
∙ ∙
H∙ + ∙C∙ + ∙C∙ + ∙H H∶C∶∶∶C∶H or H−C≡C−H
∙ ∙
4. Multiple bond – is any bond with more than a
single pair of electrons.
Example: Double and triple bond
3 General Rules for drawing Lewis Structure:
• Draw only the valence electrons (VA).
• Give every main group elements (except
Hydrogen) an octet of electrons.
• Give each Hydrogen 2 electrons.
Guidelines for Writing Lewis Structure:
1. Count the total number of valence electrons in the
molecule or ion.
• Use the Group number in the Periodic table as a guide to indicate
the number of valence electrons in each atom.
• For negative (⁻) ions, add electrons equals to the ion’s charge.
Example: Hydroxide (OH⁻)
Add 1 electron for the negative charge.
Oxygen = 6, Hydrogen = 1 : 6 + 1 + 1 = 8
• For a positive (⁺)ions, subtract the number of electrons equal to
the charge.
Example: NH₄⁺
Subtract 1 electron for the positive charge.
Nitrogen = 5, Hydrogen = (4 x 1) : 5 + 4 – 1 = 8
2. Use atomic symbols to draw a skeleton structure by
joining the atoms with shared pairs of electrons (a
singular line for each paired electrons).
• A skeleton structure indicates the attachment of terminal atom to
a central atom.
• Central atom is usually the one written first in the
molecular/covalent formula, and is one that can form most
bonds.
• Hydrogen, oxygen and Group 7A: (halogens) are often terminal
atoms. Central atom
Example: PCl₃ Cl − P − Cl
∣ Terminal atom
Cl
3. Place lone pairs of electrons around each atom (except H)
to satisfy the octet rule, starting with the terminal atoms.
Example: PCl₃ P = 5, Cl = (3x7) : 5 + 21 = 26
∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
∶Cl∙ + ∙P∙ + ∙Cl∶ or ∶Cl − P − Cl∶
∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∣ ∙∙
∙ ∶Cl∶
∶Cl∶ ∙∙
∙∙
• Using lone pairs on the Cl atoms account for 18 remaining 20
valence electrons leaving 2 electrons for a lone pair on the P atom.
• When you check for octets, remember that shared electrons are
counted as “belonging” to each of the atoms bonded by the shared
pair.
The next 2 steps apply when Steps 1 through 3 result in a structure
that does not use all the valence electrons or fails to give an octet of
electrons to each atom that should have an octet.
4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom even
if it will give the central atom more than an octet.
Example: Sulfur tetrafluoride (SF₄) S=6,F=(4x7): 6+28= 34
∙∙
∶F∶
∙
∙ ∙∙
∶ S∙ ∙F∶
∶ F∶ ∙ ∙∙
∙∙ ∶F∶
5. If the number of electrons around the central
atom is less than 8, change single bonds to the
central atom to multiple bonds.
Some atoms can share more than 1 pair of electrons, resulting in a
double covalent bond (two shared pairs) or a triple covalent bond
(three shared pairs), known as multiple bonds.
Where multiple bonds are needed to complete an octet, use 1 or
more lone pairs 0f electrons from the terminal atoms to form double
or triple covalent bonds until the central atom and all terminal atoms
have octets.
Example: COCl₂
Carbon (C) = 4 VE (Group IVA)
Oxygen (O) = 6 VE (Group VIA)
Chlorine (Cl) = 7 VE (Group VIIA)
 ∙∙
∶O∙
∙ ∶O∶
∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∣∣ ∙∙
∶Cl∙ ∙C∙ ∙Cl∶ or ∶Cl − C − Cl∶
∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙

We apply these guidelines to write the Lewis structure of Phosphate

(PO³⁻₄) a polyatomic ion which has 32 VE.
Phosphorus (P) = 5 VE, Oxygen (O) = 4(6): 5 + 24 + 3 = 32
P is the central atom and O is the terminal atom.
The 4 single P-O bonds account for 8 of the VE and provide
phosphorus with an octet of electrons. The remaining 24 valence
electrons are distributed as 3 lone pairs around each Oxygen to
complete their octets. ∙∙
O ∶O∶ 3⁻
∣ ∙∙ ∣ ∙∙
O− P − O or ∶O − P − O∶
∣ ∙∙ ∣ ∙∙
O ∶O∶
∙∙
Exceptions to the Octet Rule:
Most elements in covalent compounds – Carbon, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, and the halogens – generally follow the octet rule.
Hydrogen is a notable exception, because it
accommodates only 2electrons in bonding.
Additional exceptions include Boron in group 3A, and
elements in the third row and later in the periodic table
particularly Phosphorus and Sulfur.
Elements in Group 3A:
Elements in group 3A such as Boron, do not have enough (VE) to
form an octet in a neutral molecule.
Elements in Group 3A:
Elements in group 3A such as Boron, do not have
enough (VE) to form an octet in a neutral molecule:
Example: BF₃. Boron atom has only 6 electrons
around it.
∙∙
∶F∶ ∙∙
∙ ∶F∶
∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∣ ∙∙
∶F∙ ∙B∙ ∙F∶ or ∶F − B − F∶
∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
Elements in the Third Row:
These elements have empty d orbitals available to accept
electrons, and thus they may have “more than 8 electrons
around them. The most common elements are phosphorus
(P) and sulfur (S) which can have 10 or even 12electrons.
Example: H₃PO₄ (phosphoric acid)
Practice Exercises:
Write the Lewis structure of these molecules or
ions.
1. NH₃, 2. HCHO, 3. HOCl, 4. ClO⁻₃,
5. SF₆, 6. ClF⁺₄, 7. HCN

Follow this Procedure:

2. Arrange the atoms (central, terminal)
3. Count the total number of electrons.
4. Add the bonds and lone pairs
5. Draw the Lewis structure skeleton
Assignment:
Draw a Lewis structure of the following;
1. C₂H₄
2. CH₂O
3. C₂H₃Cl
Bond Properties:
a. Bond Length – is the distance between two
nuclei of two bonded atoms.
- The sum of atomic radii (depends on the position
in the periodic table.
- It is determined by the sizes of the atoms
themselves.
Assuming that the atoms are “spheres” the bond length is
the sum of the atomic radii of the two bonded atoms.
Bond length is “greater” in larger atoms.
Single bond increases in length along the series.
Examples:
C − N ∙ C − C C − P
77 70 77 77 77 110
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
∙

157pm 154pm 187pm

Atomic radius
Increasing Decreasing radius
radius
Periodic table
Relative Radii for some elements in Groups 4A, 5A,
6A.
4A 5A 6A
C (77)pm N (70)pm O (73)pm

Si (118)pm P (110)pm S (103)pm

Average Single Bond Lengths in picometers (pm)

I Br Cl S P Si F O N C H
H 161 142 127 132 138 145 92 94 98 110 74
C 210 191 176 181 187 194 141 143 147 154
N 203 184 169 174 180 187 134 136 140
O 199 180 165 170 176 183 130 148
F 197 178 163 168 174 181 128
Si 250 231 216 221 227 234
P 243 224 209 214 220
S 237 218 203 208
Cl 232 213 200
Br 247 228
I 266
As the electron density between the atoms increases
(number of bonds increases), the bond lengths
“decreases” because the atoms are pulled more strongly.
Example:
C − O ∙ C=O C≡O

∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

143pm 122pm 113pm

Practice Exercises:
In each pair of bonds, predict which is shorter.
Explain why?
1. P−O or S−O
2. C=C or C≡C
3. C−S or C−Cl
Answers:
Shorter bonds are: 1. S−O, 2. C≡C, 3. C−Cl
Bond lengths depend first on atomic radii; when radii are
similar, triple bonds are shorter than double bonds, which
are shorter than single bonds.
1. S−O is shorter than P−O because P atom is larger than
S atom.
2. C≡C is shorter than C=C because more electrons are
shared by atoms, the more closer the atoms are pulled
together.
3. C−Cl is shorter than C−S because a Cl atom is smaller
than an S atom.
b. Bond Energy / Enthalpies
- Is the enthalpy change that occurs when the bond
between two bonded atoms in the gas phase is
broken and the atoms are separated completely at
constant pressure.
In any chemical reactions, bonds are broken and new
bonds are formed.
• Bond breaking is an “endothermic process” that
requires transfer of energy into a system.
• Bond making is an “exothermic process” in which
energy is transferred out of a system.
The quantity of energy released when 1 mol of a particular
bond is made equals that needed when 1 mol of that bond
is broken.
Example: H−Cl bond energy is 431kJ/mol.
This indicates that 431 kJmust be supplied to break 1 mol
H−Cl bonds (∆Hᵒ = +431 kJ). Conversely, when 1 mol
H−Cl bonds is formed, 431 kJ is released (∆Hᵒ- 431 kJ).

• As the number of bonding electrons between a pair of

atoms increases (single to double to triple bonds), the
“bond length” deceases”
• This means that multiple bonds are stronger than single
bonds.
• As the electron density between two atoms
increases, the bond gets “shorter and stronger”.

Example: C=O in CO₂ is 813 kJ/mol and that of C≡O is

1073 kJ/mol. Carbon monoxide bond is
known to be the strongest covalent bond.
Average Bond Enthalpies (in kJ/mol)
Single bonds:
I Br Cl S P Si F O N C H
H 299 366 431 347 322 323 566 467 391 416 436
C 213 285 327 272 264 301 485 336 285 356
N - - 193 - 200 335 272 201 160
O 201 - 205 - 340 368 190 146
F - 238 255 326 490 582 158
Si 234 310 391 226 - 226
P 184 264 319 - 209
S - 213 255 226
Cl 209 217 242
Br 180 193
I 151
Multiple bonds:
N=N 418
N≡N 946
N=O 590
C=N 616
C≡N 866
O=O(in O₂) 498
C=C 598
C≡C 813
C=O(as in CO₂, O=C=O) 803
C=O(as in H₂C=O) 695
C≡O 1073
We will use the data in the table to estimate ∆rHᵒ for
reaction of hydrogen gas with chlorine gas.
H₂(g) + Cl₂(g) 2HCl(g)
• Breaking the covalent bond of H₂ requires an input to the system
of 436 kJ/mol.
• Breaking the covalent bond of Cl₂ requires an input to the system
of 242 kJ/mol.
• In each of these cases, the sign of the enthalpy is positive (+).
• Forming an H−Cl covalent bond in HCl transfers 431 kJ/mol out of
the system. Because 2 HCl bonds are formed , there will be 2x431
kJ/mol = 862 kJ/mol transferred out, making the sign of this
enthalpy change to negative (-).
• If we represent bond enthalpy by letter D ( refers to
dissociation of the bond), with a subscript to show which
bond refers to, then for the reaction;

H₂(g) + Cl₂(g) 2 HCl(g) the net energy transfer is;

∆rHᵒ = {[(1 H−H bond) x DH - H] + [(1 Cl−Cl bond) x DCl-Cl])

- {[( 2 H−CL bonds)) x DH−Cl])
= {[(1)(436 kJ/mol) + (1)(242 kJ/mol)]} - [(2)(431kJ/mol]
= -184 kJ
Stepwise Energy Enthalpy changes in the reaction of
Hydrogen with Chlorine:
1. Breaking 1 H₂ molecule into 2. Bonding 2 H atoms to 2 Cl atoms
2H atoms requires 436kJ/mol to form 2 HCl molecules releases
H₂ molecules. 2x431kJ/mol = 862 kJ/mol.
Separated atoms + + +
_________________________________________________
H H Cl Cl
H−H and Cl−Cl H−Cl bonds formed (2mols)
bonds broken
(436 kJ/mol + 242kJ/mol) 2 mol x 431 kJ/mol
= 678 kJ/mol into system = 862 kJ/mol out of system

+
_____________________________________________________________________
4. …and so ∆rHᵒ = (436 + 242 – 862
H
H Cl + ) = -184∆kJ/mol
kJ/mol rHᵒ= -184 kJ
; the reaction
Cl
is exothermic.

3. Breaking 1 Cl molecule into 2

Cl₂ atoms requires 242 kJ/mol H Cl H Cl
Cl₂ molecules
Each bond enthalpy was multiplied by the number of bonds
that were broken or formed.
• For bonds in reactant molecules, we added the bond
enthalpies because breaking the bonds is “endothermic”.
• For bonds in the product molecule, we subtracted the
bond enthalpies because bond formation is
“exothermic”.
Summary Equation:
∆rHᵒ = Σ[(number of bond) X D (bonds broken)
- [(number of bonds) X D (bonds formed)
Σ (Greek capital letter sigma) represents, summation;
Add the bond enthalpies for all bonds broken.
Subtract the bond enthalpies for all bonds formed.
Several Important Points to keep in mind when
doing enthalpy calculations.
• The enthalpies listed are often average bond enthalpies
and may vary depending on the molecular structure.
Example: The enthalpy of C−H bond is given as 416 kJ/mol, but C−H
bond strengths are affected by other atoms and bonds in the same
molecule. Depending on the structure of the molecule, the enthalpy
require to break a C−H bond may vary by 30 to 40 kJ/mol, so values
can be used only to estimate an enthalpy change, not to calculate it
exactly.
• The enthalpies are for breaking bonds in molecules in
the gas phase.
If a reactant or product is in the liquid or solid state, the energy
required to convert it to or from the gas phase will also contribute to
the enthalpy change of a reaction and must be accounted for.
• Multiple bonds are shown as double or triple lines
between atoms are shown in the table.
In some cases, different enthalpies are given for multiple bonds in
specific molecules such as O₂(g) of CO₂(g).
Example: Estimate the enthalpy change when Methane (CH₄) and
Oxygen (O₂) combine according to this equation.
CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)
 Example: Estimate the enthalpy change when
Methane (CH₄) and Oxygen (O₂) combine according
to this equation.
CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)
∆rHᵒ = Σ[(number of bond) X D (bonds broken)
- [(number of bonds) X D (bonds formed)
= [(4C−H)(416 kJ/mol)+ (2 O=O bond)(498 kJ/mol)]
- (4H−O)(467 kJ/mol) +(2C=O)(803 kJ/mol)
= 1664 kJ/mol+ 996 kJ/mol – 1868 kJ/mol + 1606kJ/mol
= 2660 kJ/mol – 3474 kJ/mol
= - 814 kJ
Practice exercise:
a. Estimate the enthalpy change when
Diazomethane to Ethane and Nitrogen combine.
C−H₄ + C=N₂ + N=N C−H₄ + C−C + N≡N₂

b. Find the enthalpy change for this reaction.

C₂H₄ + HBr C₂H₅Br
Bond Properties:

c. Polarity
- Is the measure of separation of charges.
Types:
1. Polar covalent bond – a bond in which electrons
are “unequally shared” by the bonding pairs and
pulled towards the more electronegative element.
- Displacement is less than complete.

H :Cl
unequal sharing of bonding
pair.
2. Non-polar covalent bond – a bond in which
electrons are “equally shared” by the bonding
pairs. H : H

H : H

equal sharing of bonding pairs

• It is formed between atoms of the same kind.

3. Ionic bond – a bond that involves a transfer of
electrons from one atom to the other that creates
positive and negative ions.

M⁺ ∶O⁻

• Transfer of electrons.
d. Electronegtivity (Linus Pauling, 1932)
- Represents the ability of an atom in a covalent bond to
attract shared electrons to itself – creating a
displacement of those bonding electrons toward the
more electronegative atom.
- Values are relative numbers with an arbitrary value of
4.0 assigned to (Fluorine) most electronegative
element.
Periodic Trends in Electronegativities:
• Electronegativities increases across a period.
• Electronegativities decreases down a group.
• In general, electronegativities increases diagonally
upward and to the right in the periodic table.
• Most electronegative element is Fluorine with a value of 4.0
• The nonmetal with the next highest electronegativity is Oxygen
with a value of 3.4
- Nitrogen 3.0
- Chlorine 3.0
• Elements with values 2.5 or more are all nonmetals (upper right
corner of the periodic table.
• Elements with 1.1 or less are all metals on the left side of the
periodic table. This elements are referred as the “most
electropositive” (metals that invariably form ionic compound).
• Elements that have electronegativities between 1.1 and 1.7 are
“transition metals”.
• Some nonmetals (P, Se) have electronegativities between 2.0 to
2.4.
• Electronegativity values are approximate and are primarily used
to predict the polarity of covalent bonds.
• Bond polarity is indicated by 𝛅+ (less electronegative atoms)
and 𝛅⎻( more electronegative atoms).
• 𝛅 stands for “partial charge”.
The Polar Covalent Bond in Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
1. The electronegativity of Hydrogen is 2.1: the electronegativity of Chlorine is 2.7.
consequently, in HCl, the H and Cl atoms are joined by a polar covalent bond.

2. The more electo- 3. Away from the less elec-

negative Cl atom Cl tronegative
H H atoms
attracts the shared
electrons. 𝛅- Cl−H 𝛅 +
4. This produces a partial negative charge, 𝛅- on the Cl atom and a
partial positive charge, 𝛅+ on the H atom.
• Except for bonds between identical atoms (equal
electronegativity), all bonds are polar to some extent,
and the difference in electronegativity values is a
qualitative measure of the degree of polarity.
• The greater the difference in electronegativity between
two atoms, the “more polar” will be the bonds
between them.
The change from nonpolar covalent bonds to slightly polar
covalent bonds to very polar covalent bonds to ionic bonds
can be regarded as a continuum.
Electronegativity
Difference: 0.0 0.7 1.0

H Br N F
F F

𝛅+ 𝛅⎻ 𝛅+ 𝛅⎻
EN: 4.0 4.0 2.1 2.8 3.0 4.0
Example: Cl − F Br − F
Electronegativity: 2.7 4.0 2.6 4.0
Electronegativity
difference: 1.3 1.4
Partial (+) & (-)
atoms: 𝛅+ 𝛅⎻ 𝛅+ 𝛅⎻
Polar bond: more polar

Analysis:
Fluorine (F) is above Bromine (Br) in the periodic table. Therefore F
is the most electronegative and Br is the least. In both bonds, F is
partially negative. Because Br is the least electronegative, the
difference in electronegativity is greater between Br− F than Cl−F.
Practice Exercise:
For each of these bond pairs, indicate the partial
positive and negative atoms and tell which is the
more polar bond.

O−N and P−O

Answer:
O − N P − O
Electronegativity: 3.5 3.0 2.1 3.5
Electronegativity
difference: 0.5 1.4
Partial (+) & (-)
atoms: 𝛅⎻ 𝛅+ 𝛅+ 𝛅⎻
Polar bond: more polar

Analysis:
P is below N in the periodic table and N is to the left of O; therefore
the electronegativity of P is less than N, which is less than O. therefore
O is partially negative in each bond P−O is more polar than N−O
because P is less electronegative than N.
• The Ionic character of a bond increases with
Electronegativity difference.
Increasing ionic character

Increasing covalent character

Nonpolar Polar Ionic bonds

covalent covalent
bonds bonds

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

3.0
• Quiz
For each of these bond pairs, indicate the partial
positive and negative atoms and tell which is the
more polar bond.
1. Na−O and Al−Cl
2. C−O AND C−Cl
3. O−F and Al−F
Lewis structures depict how the valence electrons
are distributed in a molecule or ion. For some
molecules or ions, more than one Lewis structure
can be written, each of which obeys the octet rule.

• Which of this structures is incorrect?

• How do you decide?
Using the formal charge is one way to do so.
Formal charge – is the charge of a bonded atom
would have if its bonding electrons were shared
equally.
In calculating formal charges, these assignments are
made:
• All of the lone pair electrons are assigned to the atom
on which they are found.
• Half of the bonding electrons are assigned to each atom
in the bond.
• The sum of the formal charges must equal to the actual
charge: zero for molecules and the ionic charge for an
ion.
In assigning formal charge to an atom in a Lewis structure,
Formal charge = [number of VE in an atom] – [(number
of lone pair electrons) + ½ (number of bonding electrons)]
Example: ..
[:N≡C−O:]⎺ (Cyanide)
··
N formal charge =5 – [(2 + ½ (6) O formal charge = 6 – [6 + ½ (2)]
=O = -1

C formal charge = 4 – [0 + ½ (8)] Ion charge = sum formal charges

=O = 0 + 0 + (-1) = -1

Note: The sum of the formal charges = -1, the charge on the ion. The -1
formal charge is in Oxygen, the most electronegative atom in the ion.
It is important to recognize that formal charges “do not”
indicate actual charges on atoms.
Formal charges is a useful way to determine the most
likely structure from among several Lewis structures. In
evaluating possible structures with different formal
charge distributions, these principles apply.
• Smaller formal charges are more favorable than larger
ones.
• Negative formal charges should reside on the more
electronegative atoms and positive formal charges on
less electronegative atoms.
• Like charges should not be on adjacent atoms.
Example:
Two possible Lewis structures for N₂0 (Dinitrogen oxide)
Determine the formal charges on each atom and the
preferred structure.
 .. .. ..
:O=N=N: and :O−N≡N:
··
 .. .. ..
:O=N=N:
and :O−N≡N:
··
_______________1_________________2__________
Valence electrons: 6 5 5 6 5 5
Lone pair electrons: 4 0 4 6 0 1
½ shared electrons: 2 4 2 1 4 3
Formal charge: 0 +1 -1 -1 +1 0
___________________________________ Preferred structure _____

Formal charge is the charge an atom in a molecule would have if all electrons
were shared equally.
Preferred structures have minimum formal charge. The second structure is
preferred because the negative formal charge is on the more electronegative
atom (O).
Oxygen is more electronegative than N.
Practice Exercise:
Determine the formal charges on each of these
two Lewis structure of Dichlorine monoxide, Cl₂O.
Which structure is preferred?
 .. .. .. .. .. ..
:Cl−O−Cl: or :O−Cl−Cl:
·· ·· ·· ·· ·· ··
Answer:
.. .. .. .. .. ..
:Cl−O−Cl: or :O−Cl−Cl:
·· ·· ·· ·· ·· ··
0 0 0 -1 +1 0
________________1________________2_______

Valence electrons: 7 6 7 6 7 7
Lone pair electrons:6 4 6 6 4 6
½ shared electrons:1 2 1 1 2 1
Formal charge; 0 0 0 -1 -1 0
_______________Preferred structure________________________
The first structure is preferred because it has all zero formal charge.
Writing Lewis Structures
• Step 1:
Identify the central atom (the atom surrounded by
other atoms.
In most molecules, the construction of the LS starts
with the atom at the center of structure. This atom
can either be the different atom, SO₂, or the atom
with the lowest electronegativity, such as carbon in
COCl₂.
Example: SCN⁻ Thiocyanate
Carbon is the least electron negative, it will be the
central atom.
• Step 2:
Determine the number of available electrons
(valence)in the structure. (NA).
If the molecule;
- For anion, increased the number of available
electrons (+1) by the charge of anion (-).
- For a cation, decrease the number of available
electrons (- 1)by the charge of the cation (+)
Example: Total number of valence Electrons:
S = 1x6 = 6 Since it is an anion, add 1 for
C = 1x4 = 4 the negative charges
N= 1x5 = 5 Total: 15 Thus NA = 15 + 1 = 16
• Step 3
Determine the number of electrons needed (NN) to
satisfy the Octet rule for each atom.
Note: Although most atoms follow the Octet Rule
and will require 8 electrons, there are some
exemptions such as hydrogen, which only require 2
electrons and Group 3A elements, which require
only 6 electrons.
Example:
Each atom will require 8 electrons, thus;
NN = 3 x 8 = 24
• Step 4:
Determine the total number of bonds (B) which can
be computed as follows;
B = NN – NA
2

B = 24 – 16 = 4
2
• Step 5:
Arrange the bonds around the central atom and the
surrounding atoms. This can have multiple
structures.
Example: SCN⁻
• Step 6:
Indicate the Formal charges for each element:
FC = # of VE - # of LP +1/2 BP
• Step 7:
Choose the most favored structure on the basis of
the formal charges.