DOMES

1. SIRI – 10091AA008
2.LOUKYA-10091AA026
3.MANISHA-10091AA034
 Domes and space structures
• Introduction 
The term 'space structure' refers to a structural system that
involves three dimensions. This is in contrast with a 'plane
structure', such as a plane truss, that involves no more than
two dimensions. To elaborate, in the case of a plane structure,
the external loads as well as the internal forces are in a single
plane. This is the plane that also contains the (idealised)
structure itself, both in its initial unloaded state and in its
deformed loaded state. In the case of a space structure, the
combination of the configuration, external loads, internal
forces and displacements of the structure extends beyond a
single plane. 
• The above definition is the 'formal' definition of a space
structure. However, in practice, the term 'space
structure' is simply used to refer to a number of families
of structures that include grids, barrel vaults, domes,
towers, cable nets, membrane systems, foldable
assemblies and tensegrity forms. Space structures cover
an enormous range of shapes and are constructed using
different materials such as steel, aluminium, timber,
concrete, fibre reinforced composites, glass, or a
combination of these. 
• Space structures may be divided into three
categories, namely:
1. 'lattice space structures' that consist of
discrete, normally elongated, elements, 
2. 'continuous space structures' that consist of
components such as slabs, shells, membranes, 
3. 'biform space structures' that consist of a
combination of discrete and continuous parts. 
• There are numerous examples of space structures that are built
for sports stadiums, gymnasiums, cultural centres, auditoriums,
shopping malls, railway stations, aircraft hangars, leisure centres,
transmission towers, radio telescopes, supernal structures (that
is, structures for outer space) and many other purposes.
• The term 'spatial structure' is sometimes used instead of 'space
structure'. The two terms are considered to be synonymous.
• Space structure forms are at the centre of attention in the
present review with emphasis on the geometric characteristics of
lattice space structures and, in particular, the families of grids,
barrel vaults and domes.
 Grids
• A 'grid' is a structural system involving one or more
planar layers of elements [1]. A 'single layer grid', or
'flat grid', consists of a planar arrangement of rigidly
connected beam elements. The external loading
system for a flat grid consists of forces perpendicular
to the plane of the grid and/or moments whose axes
lie in the plane of the grid. The reason for
classification of a flat grid as a space structure is that
its external loads and displacements do not lie in the
plane that contains its (idealised) configuration.
• A number of basic grid patterns are illustrated in Fig. 1. The
'two-way' pattern, shown in Fig. 1a, is the simplest pattern for
a flat grid. It consists of two sets of interconnected beams that
run parallel to the boundary lines. The diagonal pattern,
shown in Fig. 1b, consists of two parallel sets of
interconnected beams that are disposed obliquely with
respect to the boundary lines. Figs 1c to 1f show some basic
three-way and four-way grid patterns. The basic grid patterns
of Fig. 1 are frequently used in practice. However, there are
also many other grid patterns that are commonly used. These
patterns are normally derived by removal of some elements
from the basic patterns of Fig. 1.
• Two examples of this type of operation are
shown in Fig. 2. The grid pattern in Fig. 2a is
obtained from a three-way pattern by omitting
every other beam line. This is illustrated in Fig.
2c, showing a part of the grid of Fig. 2a with
the omitted beam lines shown by dotted lines.
The grid of Fig. 2b is obtained from a four-way
pattern by removal of a number of beam lines
as indicated in Fig. 2d. 
 Double Layer Grids

• A 'double layer grid' consists of two (nominally) parallel layers

of elements that are interconnected together with 'web'
elements [1]. Views of some commonly used patterns of
double layer grids are shown in Fig. 3. In this figure, the 'top'
layer elements are shown by thick lines and the 'bottom' layer
elements as well as the 'web' elements are shown by thin
lines. The double layer grid of Fig. 3a consists of a two-way top
layer and a two-way bottom layer. In the case of the grid of Fig.
3b, both the top and bottom layers have a diagonal pattern.
There are also many double layer grids built with a two-way
pattern for one of the layers and a diagonal pattern for the
other layer.
• A double layer grid of a different kind is shown in
Fig. 3c. Here, the top and bottom layers are of an
identical shape and are positioned such that their
plan views are coincident. Also, in this case all the
web elements lie in vertical planes. The result is a
double layer grid that effectively consists of a
number of intersecting plane trusses. A grid of this
type is referred to as a 'truss grid'. A truss grid may
be regarded as a flat grid whose elements are
trusses.
• A primary double layer grid pattern, such as the one
shown in Fig. 3a, is often used as a basis for the creation
of various 'reduced forms' by removing a number of
elements. An example of this is shown in Fig. 3d. This
grid is obtained from the grid of Fig. 3a by removing the
bottom layer and web elements that are connected to a
number of bottom layer nodes. A similar process is used
for obtaining the reduced grid of Fig. 3e from the grid of
Fig. 3b. Also, the diagonal truss grid of Fig. 3f is obtained
by removing the non-boundary third-direction trusses of
the grid of Fig. 3c
• In designing a grid configuration, one would like to find the most
suitable pattern for the particular application. A question that arises
naturally in this relation is: Are there some general principles or
guidelines through which the structural behaviour of different grid
patterns can be classified and used for selecting the 'right' pattern
for every design case? The answer is that different grid patterns do
indeed have their own characteristics. However, there are no
inherent 'good' or 'bad' grid patterns and the suitability of a pattern
for each particular case should be considered with regard to the
shape and size of the boundary, support positions, loading
characteristics, material(s) to be used and the manner in which the
structure is to be constructed. These comments also apply in
relation to all other space structure forms.
• There is a fundamental difference between the structural
behaviour of flat grids and that of double layer (or multilayer)
grids. Namely, flat grids are 'bending dominated' with the
elements being under bending moments, shear forces and
torques. In contrast, the main internal forces in the elements
of double layer (or multilayer) grids are axial forces. Bending
moments, shear forces and torques are also present in the
elements of double layer (or multilayer) grids in various
proportions depending on the cross-sectional properties of
the elements and the jointing system. However, the non-axial
force effects in these cases are normally secondary.
 DOMES
• A 'dome' is a structural system that consists of one or more
layers of elements that are 'arched' in all directions . The
surface of a dome may be a part of a single surface such as a
sphere or a paraboloid, or it may consist of a patchwork of
different surfaces. Some commonly used basic single layer
dome configurations are shown in Fig. 5. The dome shown in
Fig. 5a is a 'ribbed dome'. A ribbed dome consists of a number
of intersecting 'ribs' and 'rings'. A rib is a group of elements
that lie along a meridional line and a ring is a group of
elements that constitute a horizontal polygon. A ribbed dome
will not be structurally stable unless it is designed as a rigidly-
jointed system.
•  When the number of ribs is large then there
could be a problem regarding the
'overcrowding' of the elements near the crown.
One way of avoiding this problem is to cut back
the upper parts of some of the ribs. Such an
operation is referred to as 'trimming'. An
example of a 'trimmed ribbed dome' is shown
in Fig. 5b when every other rib is 'trimmed' to
the level of the fourth ring from the top.
• A modified form of a ribbed dome is obtained by
'bracing' the quadrilateral panels of the dome. The
result is a dome configuration that is referred to as a
'Schwedler dome' (after a nineteenth century
German engineer J. W. Schwedler who built many
domes of this kind). A simple example of a
Schwedler dome is shown in Fig. 5c. Another
example is shown in Fig. 5d. This dome configuration
also involves trimming to avoid overcrowding of the
elements at the upper part of the dome.
• An example of a 'lamella dome' is shown in Fig. 5e. A lamella
dome has a diagonal pattern and may involve one or more
rings. An example of a trimmed lamella dome with rings is
shown in Fig. 5f.
• The dome configurations shown in Figs 5g and 5h are two
examples of a family of domes that are referred to as 'diamatic
domes' [4]. The dome shown in Fig. 5g is an example of a basic
diamatic form consisting of triangulated sectors. The pattern of
the diamatic dome of Fig. 5h is obtained from a denser version
of the dome of Fig. 5g by removing every other line of
elements in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 2c.
• The domes shown in Figs 5i and 5j represent two
examples of the family of 'grid domes' . A grid dome
is obtained by projecting a plane grid pattern onto a
curved surface. The grid dome of Fig. 5i is obtained
by projection of a denser version of the pattern of
Fig. 2a onto a spherical surface. The grid dome of
Fig. 5j is obtained in a similar manner using a denser
version of the pattern of Fig. 2b. Grid domes are
normally rather shallow with their rise to span ratios
being smaller than the other types of domes
•  A 'geodesic' dome configuration is shown in Fig. 5k. A
dome of this kind is obtained by mapping patterns on the
faces of a polyhedron and projecting the resulting
configuration onto a curved surface. The dome of Fig. 5k
is obtained by mapping a triangulated pattern on five
neighbouring faces of an icosahedron (20-faced regular
polyhedron) and projecting the result onto a sphere which
is concentric with the icosahedron. The geodesic dome of
Fig. 5l is obtained in a similar manner with the initial
pattern chosen such that the resulting dome has a
honeycomb appearance.
• The configurations shown in Fig. 5 represent the basic dome
patterns but there are many other dome patterns that are obtained
as variations of the basic forms. Also, there are a large number of
double layer (and multilayer) dome patterns that may be obtained
from the combinations of the basic patterns. Included in these are
'truss domes' that consist of intersecting curved trusses. An
important point that should be borne in mind is that one should be
careful in using single layer domes unless the jointing system
provides sufficient rigidity for the connections and that the
elements are designed for resisting bending and shear in addition to
the axial forces. Otherwise, the structures will be prone to
snapthrough buckling. This comment also applies to the case of
single layer barrel vaults.
BRACED DOME
LAMELA DOME
INTRODUCTION :
Domes are one of the oldest structural forms and have been
used in architecture since the earliest times.
They enclose a maximum amount of space with a mim. Surface
and can be very economical in terms of materials.
A dome being curved in two direction provides theoretically one
of the most efficient shapes able to cover large areas.

Brace :stronger or firmer with wood, iron, or other forms of support.

BASED DOMES CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO :

1.Frame or skeleton type
2.Truss type , extremely rigid and suitable for very large spans.
3.Stressed skin type
4.Formed surface type.
BRACED DOME
BRACED DOMES :
These domes are much popular and vast majority of domes of
large span have been of this type .

•These domes have a special importance in engineering

practice.
•They are composed either of members lying on the surface of
revolution, or of
•straight members with their connecting points lying on such a
surface an arrangement which obstruction of the inner space.
•Braced domes are the typical example Of three dimensional
structures .
•In which any applied loading is distributed b/w many members
which may be at a considerable distance from point of
application of the load
•This leads to an even stress distribution in the structure
•Modern braced domes are often prefabricated.

•Consists of a small no. of different members interconnected by

suitable node joints.

•Braced domes posses great stiffness and owing to the lack of

internal columns or horizontal

•Bracing members have a completely unobstructed inner space

•Their weight compares very favourably with the more orthodox

forms of structures even

•for smaller span and as a rule a dome is the only economical

answer for very large spans.
LAMELLA DOME

Sports stadium, Houston, Texas.

Auditorium, Green Bay, Wisconsin.
 AUDITORIUM, GREEN BAY, WISCONSIN

•The roof deck for these domes is non-structural, but the sub purlin
arrangement furnishes secondary bracing for the dome framing.

•Both installations are supported on columns pinned radially and

fixed tangentially at the outer ring. In the Houston dome,
temperature variations displaced the sunward columns by as much
as 2 inches radially at their tops in an effective length of 6 ft. 0 in.

•This action presented some problems in the plumbing of the

columns during erection.
•Thirty-seven temporary erection towers were used for
scaffolding, and the longer Lamella units were required to be in
excess of 120 ft in length in order to span between scaffold
towers.
•Special cranes with boom length up to 275 ft. were used to lift
units up to the 210 ft clear center height.
•The weight of the roof structure including the outer (tension)
ring was slightly less than 16 lbs/sq.ft.
•The preparation of the Houston dome analysis was an
interesting experience in engineering consultation.
•The author headed the research team at Roof Structures Inc.
and prepared three test models.
•Two of the models were instrumented with electric strain
gauges and loaded to determine the validity of the method of
analysis.
•One of the structural models is shown in figure 9. Test data
indicated that the analysis for the model had an error of less
than 20 per cent.
•This error was partially due to model fabrication inaccuracies
and instrumentation of the model.

Lamella : a thin layer, membrane,

or plate of tissue, especially in
bone.
 Ribbed dome
• Ribbed domes seem to have developed in Spain
and Persia around the same time.
• While the use of ribs continued in Spain and North
Africa limited to the dome itself, in Persia it was
expanded to the zone of transition between the
dome and the supporting structure, and unique
configurations were utilized to solve the transition
conditions.
• These are sometimes called Arch-Nets [Raiszadah].

• To avoid the congestion at the apex of a dome

resulting from many ribs meeting at the same point
when rotated, Arab-Muslim builders used two
arches which were separated from each other.
 Ribbed dome
• By rotating this pair of arches, we divide the
dome surface into star-like shapes composed
of regular polygon cells. The central polygon
is a regular convex polygon, and when parts
of the ribs are omitted at the center, these
polygons turn into regular stars.
• Next to the central polygon, there is one row
of triangular cells, followed by a number of
kite shaped cells which increase in size as we
move from the center of the dome towards
its edges.
• The number of the different shapes of these
cells equals to the number of rotations
applied to the original pair of arches.
 Ribbed dome
• The number of rotations in the Great Mosque of
Cordoba where this system was first used was four.
• This produces eight-pointed star designs, which are
most popular in Islamic architecture because of their
balanced proportions, dynamic appearance, and their
relationship to both the circle and square at the same
time.
• Twelve-sided and sixteen-sided stars are extensively
used as well. The number of rotations increased over
time and produced domes with twenty four, thirty
two, forty eight, and sixty four rotations, a practice
especially popular in North Africa.
• Variations on these domes can be obtained by
removing sections of the ribs in the center or the
periphery of the dome, by using half a dome in
Mihrab and portal niches, or by using one quarter of a
dome in the corners of square rooms
 Ribbed dome
Shir Dor Madrasathe,
Samarkand, Uzbekistan
• imposing rectangular portal,
the twin ribbed domes and
two slender, framing
minarets. The dome's
transition from high
cylindrical drums to
stalactites and then to
enamel tiled ribs is
particularly noteworthy.
 Geodesic dome
• A geodesic dome is a spherical or
partial-spherical shell structure or
lattice shell based on a network of
great circles (geodesics) on the
surface of a sphere.
• The geodesics intersect to form
triangular elements that have local
triangular rigidity and also distribute
the stress across the structure.
• When completed to form a complete
sphere, it is a geodesic sphere.
• Geodesic designs can be used to form
any curved, enclosed space
 Geodesic dome
• Typically a geodesic dome design begins with an
icosahedron inscribed in a hypothetical sphere,
tiling each triangular face with smaller triangles,
then projecting the vertices of each tile to the
sphere.
• The endpoints of the links of the completed sphere
are the projected endpoints on the sphere's
surface. If this is done exactly, sub-triangle edge
lengths take on many different values, requiring
links of many sizes.
• To minimize this, simplifications are made.
• The result is a compromise of triangles with their
vertices lying approximately on the sphere.
• The edges of the triangles form approximate
geodesic paths over the surface of the dome.
Geodesic dome- Method of construction

• Wooden domes have a hole drilled in the

width of a strut.
• A stainless steel band locks the strut's
hole to a steel pipe. With this method, the
struts may be cut to the exact length
needed.
• Triangles of exterior plywood are then
nailed to the struts.
• The dome is wrapped from the bottom to
the top with several stapled layers of tar
paper, in order to shed water, and finished
with shingles.
• This type of dome is often called a hub-
and-strut dome because of the use of steel
hubs to tie the struts together.
 Geodesic dome- Method of construction
• Panelized domes are constructed of separately
framed timbers covered in plywood.
• The three members comprising the triangular
frame are often cut at compound angles in order
to provide for a flat fitting of the various
triangles.
• Holes are drilled through the members at precise
locations and steel bolts then connect the
triangles to form the dome.
• These members are often 2x4's or 2x6's, which
allow for more insulation to fit within the
triangle.
• The panelized technique allows the builder to
attach the plywood skin to the triangles while
safely working on the ground or in a comfortable
shop out of the weather.
• This method does not require expensive steel
hubs.
 Geodesic dome- Method of construction
• Steel-framework can be easily constructed of electrical conduit. One flattens
the end of a strut and drills bolt holes at the needed length.
• A single bolt secures a vertex of struts. The nuts are usually set with removable
locking compound, or if the dome is portable, have a castle nut with a cotter
pin.
• This is the standard way to construct domes for jungle gyms.
• Domes can also be constructed with a light weight aluminium framework which
can either be bolted or welded together or with a connected with a more
flexible nodel point/hub connection.
• These dome are usually clad with glass which is help in place with a PVC coping.
• The coping can be sealed with silicon to make it water tight.
• Some designs will also allow for double glazing or insulated panels to be fixed
in the framework.
• This allows a fully habitable building to be formed.
• Some concrete domes have been constructed from prefabricated,
prestressed, steel-reinforced concrete panels that can be bolted into place.
• The bolts are within raised receptacles covered with little concrete caps to
shed water.
• The triangles overlap to shed water. The triangles in this method can be
molded in forms patterned in sand with wooden patterns, but the concrete
triangles are usually so heavy that they must be placed with a crane.
• This construction is well-suited to domes because there is no place for
water to pool on the concrete and leak through. The metal fasteners, joints,
and internal steel frames remain dry, preventing frost and corrosion
damage.
• The concrete resists sun and weathering. Some form of internal flashing or
caulking must be placed over the joints to prevent drafts.