CHAPTER II

Transducer and their

response
Transducers
is a device that transforms one type of energy into another.
e.g. a battery is,therefore,a transducer( chemical energy is converted
into electrical energy)

Ordinary glass thermometer ( heat energy converted into a

mechanical displacement of a liquid column)
 conti.
The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, Chemical, thermal, nuclear
or a combination of any two or more of these.
Mechanical transducers
are simple and rugged in construction, cheaper in cost, and operate without
external power supplies but are not advantageous for many of the modern
scientific experiments and process control instrumentation owning to their poor
frequency response, requirement of large forces to overcome mechanical friction,
incompatibility when remote control or indication is required, and a lot of others
limitations. All these drawbacks have been overcome with the introduction of
electrical transducers.
Electrical transducers
Mostly quantities such as heat, intensity of light, flow rate of liquid, level,
humidity and PH value etc… Cannot be measured directly such quantities are
required to be sensed and changed into some form for easy measurement i.e.
they are change to electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance,
inductance and capacitance etc…can be conveniently measured, transferred and
stored and, therefore,
Conti.
for measurement of non-electrical quantities. These are to be converted into
electrical quantities first and then measured.
The function of converting non-electrical quantity into electrical one is
accomplished by a device is called the electrical transducer.
Electrical transducer have numerous advantages, some of them are
enumerated below
 Friction effect is reduced to the minimum possible
 Mass-inertia effects are reduced to minimum possible
 Very small power is required for controlling the electrical or electronically
system
 The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level.
Criterion for selection of transducer
The following is the summary of factors influencing the choice of a transducer
for measurement of physical quantities.
Operating principle
may be resistive,inductance,capacitive,piezoeletric etc..
Sensitivity
The transducer may be sensitive enough to produce a detectable output.
Operating range
should maintain the range requirements and have a good resolution over its

entire range.
Accuracy
a high degree of accuracy is assured.
Environmental compatibility
it should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified
environmental conditions maintains its input-output relationship and does
not breakdown.
Conti.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals
The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.
Ruggedness
Should capable of withstanding overload(electrical intensive versus size and
weight must be considered)
Electrical aspect
Example the length and type of cable required
Other static characteristics
Transducers should have a low non-linearity , high resolution and a high
degree of repeatability.
Loading effect
Incapability of the transducer to faithfully measure, record or control the
input signal( measurand ) in undistorted form is known as loading effect.
Classification of transducer
Transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of
electrical principles involved, methods of application, methods of energy
conversion used, nature of output signal etc…
they can be classified as follows
1.Primary and secondary transducers
2.Active and passive transducers
3.On the base of transduction form used
4.Analog and digital transducers
5.Transducers and inverse transducers

Primary and secondary transducers(based on the methods of application)

when the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical
phenomenon is converted into the electrical form directly then such a
transducer is called the primary transducer.
 Conti.
For example, a thermostat used for the measurement of temperature
fall in this category. The thermistot senses the temperature
directly and causes the change in resistance with the change
in temperature.

When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and its output
being of some form other than input signal is given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.

For example, in case of pressure mesurement,bourdon tube is a primary sensor

which converts pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is
converted into an output voltage by an LVDT.In this case LVDT is secondary
transducer.
 Conti.
Active and passive transducers (based on the methods energy conversion)

Active transducers
are those which do not require an auxiliary power source to produce their output.
They are also known as self-generating . The energy required for production of an
output signal is obtained from a physical quantity. As they are active the size is
compact.

Passive transducers
required power for transduction from an auxiliary power supply. They are also
known as externally powered transducers. They are derive part of the power
required for conversion from the physical quantity under measurement. Auxiliary
power supply has to be considered for size.
 Conti.
Analog and digital transducers ( based on the nature of output signal)
Analog transducers
(converts the input quantity into an analog
output which is a continuous function of time)
Digital transducers
(converts input quantity into electrical output which is in the form of pulse)
Transducers and Inverse Transducers
Transducer
(non electrical to electrical quantity)
Inverse transducer
(electrical quantity into non electrical quantity)
Conti.
Classification based upon principle of transduction
Resistive
Inductive
Capacitive
depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistance,
inductance, or capacitance respectively.
They can also be classified piezoelectric, thermoelectric, magneto restrictive,
Electro kinetic and optical.

Resistive transducers
In such a transducers, resistance between the output terminals of a
transducers get varied according to the measurand.
Resistance transducers are preferred over other transducers because DC and
AC both are suitable for resistance measurement.
 Conti.
Resistance of any metal conductor is given by the expression

where ρ =resistivity of the material of conductor in Ω.m

L = is the length of conductor in meters
A = is the cross-sectional area of the conductors in m2 .
Physical phenomenon i.e. input signal to the transducer causes variation in resistance
by changing any one of the quantities ρ,A and L.
Example, For measurement of force and pressure the resistance of strain gauges varied.
FROM THE EQUATION OF
RESISTANCE
,

 R = resistance  A = the area of the

 ρ = specific resistance of conductor in square
the conductor material meters
 L = the length of  When a strain produced by
the conductor in a force is applied on the
meters wires, L increase and A
decrease.
 HYSTERESIS CURVE
• The hysteresis is an error
of a sensor, which is
defined as the maximum
difference in output at
any measurement value
within the sensor’
specified range s
approaching the point when
first with increasing and
then with decreasing the
input parameter
 NONLINEARITY
• The
nonlinearity indicates
the maximum deviation
of the actual measured
curve of a
sensor the ideal
from curve
• Nonlinearity (%) =
Maximum deviation in
input ⁄ Maximum full
scale input
Conti.
STRAIN GAUGES
is basically a device used for measuring mechanical surface
strain and is one of the most extensively used electrical
transducers.
Physical quantities such as torque,pressure,weight and tension
etc.can be measured by strain gauges.
Working principle
when stress is applied on the metal conductor its resistance
changes owing to change in length and x-sectional area of the
conductor.
 Working principle of resistance strain gauge
The working of strain gauge is based on the fact that when stress is applied on the
metal conductor its resistance changes owing to change in length and x-sectional
area of the conductor.

Resistance of the conductor under stress is also changed in due to change in resistivity
of the conductor, this property is called the piezo-resistive effect (the linear
electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state
in crystalline materials). That is why strain gauges are also called the piezo-
resistive strain gauges.

If a conductor of length L, area of cross-section A is subjected to axial tension, the

resistance will change because of change in length, area of x-section and resistivity
of the material.
Resistance of an unstrained conductor is given by an expression
Conti.

Let under strained conditions resistance of conductor be changed by ΔR because

of change in length by Δl,cross-sectional area by ΔA and resistivity byΔρ .these
quantities can be related with each other by differentiating above expression with
respect to stress.
Conti.
These strain gauges are mainly of four types namely:
1.Wire strain gauge 2. Thin film strain gauges and
3.Foil strain gauge 4. semiconductor strain gauge
Wire strain gauges
 are normally of smaller size
 are subject to minimal leakage
 can be employed in high temperature application
The characteristics, that should be possessed by wire strain gauges in order to
give excellent and reproducible results, are as follows:
1.The element of the wire strain gauge should be of low resistance
temperature coefficient so that measurement accuracy is not affected by
variations in temperature.
2.Wire strain gauges should be of resistance as high as possible so that
accuracy of measurement is not affected due to small variations in
resistance of measuring circuit.
Conti.

3.Wire strain gauges should have a high value of gauge factor so

that a large change in resistance is obtained for a particular
value of strain resulting in high sensitivity.
4.Wire strain gauges should be of linear characteristics for its
entire range in order to have easy calibration.
5.Wire strain gauges should have very good frequency response
as these are frequently employed for dynamic measurements.
 Conti.
Wire strain gauges are of two types namely
(a) Unbounded wire strain gauges
(b) Bonded wire strain gauges
Unbounded wire strain gauges
as name indicate ,resistance wire is not bonded on a base ,instead of that strain is
directly transferred to the resistance wire and so a smaller force is required for
changing the wire’s length.
In such a strain gauge the resistance wires of about 25 micron diameter are stretched
between a stationary frame and an armature that is supported in the centre of the
frame as shown in the figure below.
Since the resistance wires would buckle under compressive forces, an internal
Preload, greater than expected compressive load ,is used. Four resistance wires
are generally connected in four arms of a Wheatstone bridge as shown below.
Conti.
Conti.
With no external load applied i.e. at initial preload, the strains and resistances
of four wires are nominally equal giving a balanced bridge i.e., output
voltage Vo =0.
This is generally accomplished by providing adjustable resistances in the
bridge. Application of an external force increases tension in two wires and
reduces it in other two wires (the wires never slack) causing corresponding
variation in resistance of wires unbalancing the bridge and causing an
output voltage Vo in proportion to the displacement. The output device can
be calibrated to read the magnitude of the displacement of the armature
directly.
Conti.
Bonded wire strain gauges
The most common type of bonded wire strain gauge used for detecting
displacements caused by large forces in flat grid type, as shown below.

In flat grid type bonded wire strain gauge fine resistance wire of diameter of 25
micro or less is wound back and forth in a grid format with as many loops
possible, laid side by side. This grid is cemented to base or carrier which may
be a thin sheet of paper or bakelite or a sheet of teflon.
The wire is covered on top with thin sheet of material in order to protect it from
any mechanical damage
Conti.
The spreading of wire allows a uniform distribution of stress over the grid. A
large length to width ratio in the grid structure is also desirable in order to
keep the transverse sensitivity minimum. Two connecting leads are soldered
or welded to the ends of the grid.
The bonded strain gauge is cemented with special adhesive to the structure
(specimen) whose tensile or compressive strain is to be measured. For
some applications, the adhesive used must also be resistant to humidity,
temperature, and other environmental conditions.
Because of intimate contact between the wire grid and strain surface of the
specimen and because of practically no strength of wire of its own for
resisting any elongation or compression, the wire elongates or compresses
exactly the same distance as the specimen. The strain of wire grid
is,therefore,exactly the same as the strain of the specimen.
The strain of wire grid, is measured with the Wheatstone bridge connecting
the gauge in one of the four arms while the remaining three arms have
standard resistance in the unstrained condition.
Conti.
Main drawbacks
resistance of the loop lengths at the end of the wires also changes due to
transverse strain and cause serious error.
Its resistance also depends on temperature and so a change in temperature of
the surrounding environment (or induced because of stress) can cause
serious error.
To counteracting this temperature effect, a second strain gauge, identical to
first one ,can be mounted on the same structure in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the force. The force has no effect on this
strain gauge, as it is not aligned with the force, and that is why it is called
the dummy gauge.
This dummy gauge is wired into the Wheatstone bridge as shown in the fig.
below.
Conti.
The purpose of this dummy gauge is to cancel out any temperature related
resistance variation in the active gauge. with both gauges experiencing the
same temperature, any resistance variation in the active gauge due to
temperature variations appears in the dummy gauge too ,therefore , the
bridge remains balanced. In this ways, variations due to temperature can be
eliminated as a source of error.
Conti.
Conti.
Conti.
Wheatstone Bridge
The combination of this bridge with
operational amplifier is used extensively in
industries for various transducers and sensors.
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors
that are connected in the shape of a diamond
with the supply source and indicating
instruments as shown in figure.
 This bridge is used to find the unknown
resistance very precisely by comparing it
with a known value of resistances. In this
bridge null or balanced condition is used to
find the resistance.
 For this bridge balanced condition voltage at
points C and D must be equal. Hence, no
current flows through the galvanometer. For
getting the balanced condition one of the
resistors must be variable.
 From the figure,
 The voltage at point D = V × RX / (R3 + RX)
 The voltage at point C = V × R2 / (R1 + R2)
 The voltage (V) across galvanometer or
between C and D is,
 VCD = V × RX / (R3 + RX) − V R2 / (R1 + R2)
When the bridge is balanced VCD = 0,
 So,
 V × RX / (R3 + RX) = V R2 / (R1 + R2)
 RXR1 + RXR2 = R2R3 + R2RX
 R1RX= R2R3
 R2/R1= RX/R3

This is the condition to balance the bridge. And for finding the unknown value of
resistance
 RX = R3 × (R2 / R1)
From the above equation R4 or Rx can be computed from the known value of resistance
R3 and the ratio of R2/R1. Therefore, most of the cases R2 and R1 values are fixed and
the R3 value is variable so that null value is achieved and the bridge gets balanced.

Current flow in first arm is I1 = V/ (R1+R2)

Conti.
Other types of bonded wire strain gauges are wrap-around ,single wire, and
woven type gauge.
Wrap-around strain gauge
The resistance wire is wound around on a flattened tube paper or a paper strip.
For same value resistance gauge size becomes smaller but the thickness of the
gauge increase as the grip wire is in two planes. It introduces different
transfer characteristics to two layers of wire resulting in layer hysteresis and
creep.
Conti.
Single wire type gauge
two or more wires are stretched across and laid as shown below, instead of
loop formed by the same wires thick copper wires are used for joining the
ends, reducing the cross-sensitivity considerably.
Such gauge are not very popular and are used for large gauge lengths only.
Conti.
Woven type gauge
a silk-insulated Eureka wire is wound as the weft on a rayon wrap. Such a
gauge is useful for tests on fabrics and leather.
 Conti.
Foil strain gauges
It is basically an extension of the bonded wire strain gauge, differs in construction and
has certain advantages. The bonded wire strain gauges have been completely
superseded by foil strain gauges. In such gauges, metal foils are used instead of wire
as shown below. The required grid pattern is formed from a very thin foil of the
same material as that used in wire strain gauges by photo-etching (cold chemical
process that corrosively removes unwanted material) processes that permits
great flexibility with regard to shape. The thickness of foil varies from 2.5 microns
to 6 microns.
Conti.
Thin Film strain Gauges
A thin film strain gauge is produced by depositing a thin layer of metal alloy on an
elastic metal specimen by means of vacuum deposition or sputtering process.
This molecularly bonded to the specimen under test, so the drawbacks of the
epoxy adhesive bond are eliminated. This technique is most widely used for
transducer applications such as in diaphragm-type pressure gauges.

For producing thin film strain gauge transducers ,first an electrical insulation such
as a ceramic is deposited on the stressed elastic metal member such as a
diaphragm or beam and then strain gauge alloy is deposited on the top of the
insulation layer. Both layers may be deposited either by vacuum deposition(is a
family of processes used to deposit layers atom-by-atom or molecule-by-
molecule at sub-atmospheric pressure (vacuum) on a solid surface) or sputtering
process(a process whereby atoms are ejected from a solid target material
due to bombardment of the target by energetic particles).
Conti.
Semi-conductor strain gauges
semiconductor strain gauges are based on the piezo-resistive property of
doped (doping intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely
pure (also referred to as intrinsic) semiconductor for the purpose of
modulating its electrical properties.)silicon and germanium and that is
why the transducers based on semiconductor gauges are often called piezo-
resistive transducers. They are made as continuous films of germanium or
silicon base materials.
Under strained condition, resistivity of any material changes and this is called
the piezo-resistive property of the materials. In metal alloy strain gauges,
variation in resistance is caused, under strained condition, mainly because
of change in resistivity of the material.
Thermistor

Resistance
Temperature

A THERMISTOR is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly

with temperature. Semi-conductor thermistors have a Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC). i.e. as temperature increases, the resistance decreases.
The word is a contraction of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely
used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting over
current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermocouple

As the junction temperature increases a small voltage is created in the loop.

The voltage produced at the junction of the dissimilar metals is due to a
phenomenon called the “Seebeck Effect”.

•The higher the temperature at the junction, the greater the voltage produced
by that junction.

•The relationship between voltage and temperature is constant and therefore

will graph as a linear line.
Pros & Cons

Pros
 They are inexpensive.
 They are rugged and reliable.

 They can be used over a wide temperature range.

Cons
 low output voltage

 low sensitivity

 non-linearity

 electrical connections
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)