CHEMICAL BONDING AND

PROPERTIES
ROSHAN JAWAD ZAFIR. CHEMISTRY 112.
 FORMATION OF IONS
Electrons can be lost or gained from other atoms. When an atom gains or loses electrons an ion is
formed. An ion has a positive or negative charge, depending on whether the atom loses or gains
electrons. Each type of atom forms a specific ion depending on their valence shell and required
noble gas configuration. A cation is a positively charged ion with fewer electrons than protons
while an anion is negatively charged with more electrons than protons, because of their opposite
electric charges; cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds. All
cations are formed from metal atoms with the exception of the ammonium ion (NH4+). All anions
are formed from non-metal atoms, either singly or in groups. Ions consisting of only a single atom
are termed atomic or monatomic ions, while two or more atoms form molecular ions or polyatomic
ions. Number of protons and electrons are always different in ions as they carry a charge.
 TYPES OF IONS
A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of more than one atom. The ammonium ion consists of one
nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge
and a formula of NH+4. The carbonate ion consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms
and carries an overall charge of 2−.
 IONIC BONDING
Noble gases are unreactive as they have fully filled valence shells through duplet or octet
configurations. Thus, an atom is stable if it acquires a noble gas configuration which is made
possible by losing gaining or sharing electrons!
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds. Ionic bonding is the electrostatic forces of
attraction between an anion and a cation. The sum of negative and positive charges are always
the same in an ionic compound. Most ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and
are non volatile and are mostly solids at room temperature! This is because a large amount of
energy is required to break the strong electrostatic forces of attraction. They are usually soluble
and water and insoluble in organic solvents like alcohol. This is because water molecules are
attracted towards ions which weakens the force of attraction. As a result ions are pulled out of the
lattice and the result is an aqueous solution. The absence of water in organic solvents prevents
the solubility of ionic compounds in solvents like alcohol. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in
molten or aqueous state because in a lattice there are no free electrons to carry the charge,
whereas in molten state, there are cations and anions which transfer the electric charge. Did you
know, sodium, potassium and chloride ions in our body can conduct electricity and send electrical
messages from the cells to the brain and vice versa?
 COVALENT BONDING
Non-metal atoms can react with one another to attain the stable electronic configuration. This is
done through the sharing of electrons! Covalent bond is present between atoms of the same and
also different elements. Molecules form when two or more atoms are joined by covalent bonds.
 MORE COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonds exist as simple molecular(Bromine gas, Br₂) or giant molecular structures
(Fullerene, C₆₀). Giant structures are usually arranged in giant lattices and they are extremely
strong because they have many strong covalent bonds. Simple molecules are just normal
molecules, though it contains strong covalent bond, it still has weak intermolecular forces. Thus
they have low melting and boiling points and are usually gases and liquids at room temperature.
Allotropes of Carbon are great examples of giant covalent structures. They have high melting and
boiling points, and usually don’t conduct electricity, though graphite can, as it has a free electron
for each atom of carbon which can travel between the layers to carry the charge.
 METALLIC BONDING
Metal atoms are held together strongly to each other by metallic bonding to form a giant lattice
structure. In the lattice, the metal atoms lose their valence electrons and become cations. The
electrons which left the atom do not belong to anything now and are called delocalised. Those
electrons move freely between the cations like a cloud of negative charge. Hence, the metal lattice
structure is described as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a “sea of mobile electrons”!
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES!
Intermolecular forces (IMFs) are bonds that exist between two separate and independent
molecules. These bonds were first described by Johannes van der Waals, a Dutch chemist,
and they are sometimes referred to as "van der Waals" forces. They exist in a variety of
strengths and forms. IMFs are much smaller than ionic, polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
IMFs are grouped based on their method of interaction. In order of increasing strength, IMFs
include London dispersion forces, induced dipole forces, dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen
bonding, ion-dipole forces, ionic-ionic forces.
 LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
London’s dispersion forces can be defined as a temporary attractive force due to the formation of
temporary dipoles in a nonpolar molecule. These London dispersion forces are often found in the
halogens (e.g., F2 and I2), the noble gases (e.g., Ne and Ar), and in other nonpolar molecules,
such as carbon dioxide and methane.
 INDUCED DIPOLE FORCES
A dipole-induced dipole attraction is a weak attraction that results when a polar molecule induces
a dipole in an atom or in a nonpolar molecule by disturbing the arrangement of electrons in the
nonpolar species. Examples of a dipole–dipole interaction can be that between polar molecules,
such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), carboxylic acids (i.e., acetic acid), and amino acids. The positive
end of a polar molecule will attract the negative end of the other molecule and influence its
position.
 DIPOLE DIPOLE FORCES
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the
negative end of another polar molecule. Example of a dipole–dipole interaction can be seen in
hydrogen chloride (HCl): the relatively positive end of a polar molecule will attract the relatively
negative end of another HCl molecule.
 HYDROGEN BONDING
An electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom in one polar molecule (as of water) and a
small electronegative atom (as of oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) in usually another molecule of the
same or a different polar substance.
 ION-DIPOLE
An example of the ion-dipole interaction is the interaction between a Na+ ion and water (H2O)
where the sodium ion and oxygen atom are attracted to each other, while the sodium and
hydrogen are repelled by each other.
 IONIC-IONIC
This bonding is present in all ionic lattice structures which is indeed the strongest among all
intermolecular forces. For example in a NaCl lattice, chloride ions of one NaCl will stay attached to
another sodium ion.
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the measurement of the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of
electrons. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at
which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus.Electronegativity determines the
polarity of bonds. Electronegativity is affected by both the size of the nucleus and the distance of
any electrons from the nucleus.
 POLARITY
Polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an
electric dipole moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end. Polar
molecules must contain polar bonds due to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded
atoms. When electrons are shared evenly between two identical elements, the bond has no net
charge: it is a nonpolar bond. Examples here would include the diatomic elements O₂ and H₂.
When the electronegativities are different, the electrons spend more time around one atom than
the other. The bond is polarized towards one atom and away from the other.
 DETERMINING ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The larger the difference in electronegativities, the more polarized the bond becomes. If the
polarization occurs severely enough, the electron does in fact get completely transferred (shared)
and the bond becomes ionic. There is, therefore, a continuum of bonds, not just clear-cut ionic or
covalent bonds, determined by electronegativity values. Electronegativities are expressed in
arbitrary units on the Pauling electronegativity scale. Cesium is the least electronegative element
(0.7), and fluorine is the most electronegative element (4.0).
 REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS
The structural formula of a chemical compound is a graphic representation of the molecular
structure (determined by structural chemistry methods), showing how the atoms are possibly
arranged in the real three-dimensional space. Lewis structures (also known as Lewis dot
structures) are diagrams that represent the valence electrons of atoms within a molecule. These
Lewis symbols and Lewis structures help visualize the valence electrons of atoms and molecules,
whether they exist as lone pairs or within bonds.
 THE VSEPR THEORY
Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory, is a model used in chemistry to
predict the geometry of individual molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their
central atoms.
 SOURCES AND CITATIONS
https://www.britannica.com/science/ion-physics#:~:text=Ions%20are%20formed%20by%20the,ass
ociation%20with%20one%20of%20the
, Formation of Ions - Celeste Hardiman-10D SCIENCE,
What the difference between simple molecules and giant structures,
https://www.khanacademy.org/search?page_search_query=intermolecular%20forces,
Intramolecular and intermolecular forces (article),
https://www.khanacademy.org/search?search_again=1&page_search_query=intermolecular+force
s
, London dispersion forces (video),
PICTURES TAKEN RANDOMLY FROM GOOGLE.

THE END