Individual and Market

Demand
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1. JA pada tanggal 18-03-2021 (07.00-09.20)
2. ID pada tanggal 18-03-2021 (09.30-12.00)
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4. CA pada tanggal 19-03-2021 (13.00-15.15)
Individual and
Market Demand
Topics to be Discussed

 Individual Demand
 Income and Substitution Effects
 Market Demand
 Consumer Surplus

Chapter 4 Slide 3
Individual Demand

 Price Changes
 Using the figures developed in the
previous chapter, the impact of a
change in the price of food can be
illustrated using indifference curves.

Chapter 4 Slide 4
Effect of a Price Change
Clothing
(units per
month) Assume:
• I = $20
10 • PC = $2
• PF = $2, $1, $.50

6 A
U1 D
5 Three separate
B
indifference curves
4 U3
are tangent to
each budget line.
U2

Food (units
per month)
4 12 20
Chapter 4 Slide 5
Effect of a Price Change
Clothing The price-consumption
(units per curve traces out the
month) utility maximizing
market basket for the
various prices for food.

6 A
Price-Consumption Curve
U1 D
5
B
4 U3

U2

Food (units
4 12 20 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 6
Effect of a Price Change
Price
of Food
Individual Demand relates
E the quantity of a good that
$2.00
a consumer will buy to the
price of that good.

G
$1.00
Demand Curve
$.50 H

Food (units
4 12 20 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 7
Individual Demand
The
The Individual
Individual Demand
Demand Curve
Curve

 Two Important Properties of Demand

Curves
1) The level of utility that can be
attained changes as we move along
the curve.

Chapter 4 Slide 8
Individual Demand
The
The Individual
Individual Demand
Demand Curve
Curve

 Two Important Properties of Demand

Curves
2) At every point on the demand
curve, the consumer is maximizing
utility by satisfying the condition that the
MRS of food for clothing equals the
ratio of the prices of food and
clothing.
Chapter 4 Slide 9
Effect of a Price Change
Price When the price falls: Pf/Pc & MRS also fall
of Food
E
$2.00

• E: Pf/Pc = 2/2 = 1 = MRS

• G: Pf/Pc = 1/2 = .5 = MRS
G • H:Pf/Pc = .5/2 = .25 = MRS
$1.00
Demand Curve
$.50 H

Food (units
4 12 20 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 10
Individual Demand

 Income Changes
 Using the Food-Clothing example
developed in chapter 3, the impact of a
change in income can be illustrated
using indifference curves.

Chapter 4 Slide 11
Effects of Income Changes
Clothing
Assume: Pf = $1
(units per
month) Pc = $2
I = $10, $20, $30

Income-Consumption
Curve
7 D An increase in income,
U3
with the prices fixed,
5 U2 causes consumers to alter
B their choice of
3 market basket.
A U1

Food (units
4 10 16 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 12
Effects of Income Changes
Price An increase in income,
of from $10 to $20 to $30,
food with the prices fixed,
shifts the consumer’s
demand curve to the right.

E G H
$1.00

D3
D2
D1

Food (units
4 10 16 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 13
Individual Demand

 Income Changes
 The income-consumption curve traces
out the utility-maximizing combinations
of food and clothing associated with
every income level.

Chapter 4 Slide 14
Individual Demand

 Income Changes
 An increase in income shifts the budget
line to the right, increasing consumption
along the income-consumption curve.
 Simultaneously, the increase in income
shifts the demand curve to the right.

Chapter 4 Slide 15
 Individual Demand
Normal
Normal Good
Good vs.
vs. Inferior
Inferior Good
Good
 Income Changes
 When the income-consumption curve
has a positive slope:
 The quantity demanded increases

with income.
 The income elasticity of demand is

positive.
 The good is a normal good.

Chapter 4 Slide 16
 Individual Demand
Normal
Normal Good
Good vs.
vs. Inferior
Inferior Good
Good
 Income Changes
 When the income-consumption curve
has a negative slope:
 The quantity demanded decreases

with income.
 The income elasticity of demand is

negative.
 The good is an inferior good.

Chapter 4 Slide 17
An Inferior Good
Steak15
(units per Income-Consumption
month) Curve
Both hamburger
and steak behave
C as a normal good,
10 between A and B...
U3

…but hamburger
becomes an inferior
B good when the income
5 consumption curve
bends backward
U2 between B and C.
A
U1
Hamburger
5 10 20 30 (units per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 18
Individual Demand

 Engel Curves
 Engel curves relate the quantity of good
consumed to income.
 If the good is a normal good, the Engel
curve is upward sloping.
 If the good is an inferior good, the Engel
curve is downward sloping.

Chapter 4 Slide 19
Engel Curves
Income
($ per
month) 30

Engel curve slopes

upward for a
20 normal good.

10

Food (units
0 4 8 12 16 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 20
Engel Curves
Income
($ per
month) 30

Inferior
Engel curve is
backward bending
20 for inferior goods.

Normal

10

Food (units
0 4 8 12 16 per month)

Chapter 4 Slide 21
Individual Demand
Substitutes
Substitutes and
and Complements
Complements

1) Two goods are considered

substitutes if an increase
(decrease) in the price of one
leads to an increase (decrease) in
the quantity demanded of the
other.
 e.g. movie tickets and video rentals

Chapter 4 Slide 22
Individual Demand
Substitutes
Substitutes and
and Complements
Complements

2) Two goods are considered

complements if an increase
(decrease) in the price of one leads
to a decrease (increase) in the
quantity demanded of the other.
 e.g. gasoline and motor oil

Chapter 4 Slide 23
Individual Demand
Substitutes
Substitutes and
and Complements
Complements

3) Two goods are independent when

a change in the price of one good
has no effect on the quantity
demanded of the other.

Chapter 4 Slide 24
Individual Demand

 Substitutes and Complements

 If the price consumption curve is
downward-sloping, the two goods are
considered substitutes.
 If the price consumption curve is
upward-sloping, the two goods are
considered complements.
 They could be both!

Chapter 4 Slide 25
Income and Substitution Effects

 A fall in the price of a good has two

effects: Substitution & Income
 Substitution Effect
 Consumers will tend to buy more of
the good that has become relatively
cheaper, and less of the good that is
now relatively more expensive.

Chapter 4 Slide 26
Income and Substitution Effects

 A fall in the price of a good has two

effects: Substitution & Income
 Income Effect
Consumers experience an increase
in real purchasing power when the
price of one good falls.

Chapter 4 Slide 27
Income and Substitution Effects

 Substitution Effect
 The substitution effect is the change in
an item’s consumption associated with
a change in the price of the item, with
the level of utility held constant.
 When the price of an item declines, the
substitution effect always leads to an
increase in the quantity of the item
demanded.

Chapter 4 Slide 28
Income and Substitution Effects

 Income Effect
 The income effect is the change in an
item’s consumption brought about by
the increase in purchasing power, with
the price of the item held constant.
 When a person’s income increases, the
quantity demanded for the product may
increase or decrease.

Chapter 4 Slide 29
Income and Substitution Effects

 Income Effect
 Even with inferior goods, the income
effect is rarely large enough to outweigh
the substitution effect.

Chapter 4 Slide 30
Income and Substitution
Effects: Normal Good
Clothing
When the price of food falls,
(units per consumption increases by F1F2
month) R as the consumer moves from A
to B.
The substitution effect,F1E,
(from point A to D), changes the
C1 A relative prices but keeps real income
(satisfaction) constant.

The income effect, EF2,

( from D to B) keeps relative
D B prices constant but
C2 increases purchasing power.

Substitution U2
Effect U1
Food (units
O F1 Total Effect E S F2 T per month)
Income Effect

Chapter 4 Slide 31
Income and Substitution
Effects: Inferior Good
Clothing
(units per Since food is an
month) R inferior good, the
income effect is
negative. However,
the substitution effect
A is larger than the
income effect.
B

U2
D

Substitution
Effect U1
Food (units
O F1 E S F2 T per month)
Total Effect
Income Effect

Chapter 4 Slide 32
Income and Substitution Effects

 A Special Case--The Giffen Good

 The income effect may theoretically be
large enough to cause the demand
curve for a good to slope upward.
 This rarely occurs and is of little
practical interest.

Chapter 4 Slide 33
Effect of a Gasoline Tax With a Rebate

 Assume
 Ped = -0.5
 Income = $9,000
 Price of gasoline = $1

Chapter 4 Slide 34
Effect of a Gasoline Tax With a Rebate
Expenditures
On Other
Goods ($) After Gasoline Tax
F Plus Rebate
A • $.50 Excise Tax
• Gasoline = 900 gallons

• $450 REBATE
• New budget line
• Consumer is worse off
H C
After • Gasoline = 1200 gallons
Gasoline E • Other expenditures = $7800
Tax U2
U3
U1 Original Budget
Line

Gasoline Consumption
900 913.5 1200 D J B (gallons/year)

Chapter 4 Slide 35
 Market Demand
From
From Individual
Individual to
to Market
Market Demand
Demand
 Market Demand Curves
 A curve that relates the quantity of a
good that all consumers in a market buy
to the price of that good.

Chapter 4 Slide 36
Determining the
Market Demand Curve
Price Individual A Individual B Individual C Market
($) (units) (units) (units) (units)

1 6 10 16 32
2 4 8 13 25
3 2 6 10 18
4 0 4 7 11
5 0 2 4 6

Chapter 4 Slide 37
Summing to Obtain a
Market Demand Curve
Price
5 The market demand
curve is obtained by
summing the consumer’s
4 demand curves

3
Market Demand
2

1
DA DB DC

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Quantity

Chapter 4 Slide 38
Market Demand

 Two Important Points

1) The market demand will shift to
the right as more consumers enter
the market.
2) Factors that influence the
demands of many consumers will
also affect the market demand.

Chapter 4 Slide 39
Market Demand

 Elasticity of Demand
Recall: Price elasticity of demand
measures the percentage change in the
quantity demanded resulting from a
1-percent change in price.

Q/Q Q / P
EP  
P/P Q/P
Chapter 4 Slide 40
 Price Elasticity and
Consumer Expenditure

Demand If Price Increases, If Price Decreases,

Expenditures: Expenditures:

Inelastic (Ep <1) Increase Decrease

Unit Elastic (Ep = 1) Are unchanged Are unchanged

Elastic (Ep >1) Decrease Increase

Chapter 4 Slide 41
Market Demand

 Point Elasticity of Demand

 For large price changes (e.g. 20%), the
value of elasticity will depend upon
where the price and quantity lie on the
demand curve.

Chapter 4 Slide 42
Market Demand

 Point Elasticity of Demand

 Point elasticity measures elasticity at a
point on the demand curve.
 Its formula is:

EP  (P/Q)(1/sl ope)
Chapter 4 Slide 43
Market Demand

 Problems Using Point Elasticity

 We may need to calculate price
elasticity over portion of the demand
curve rather than at a single point.
 The price and quantity used as the base
will alter the price elasticity of demand.

Chapter 4 Slide 44
Market Demand
Point
Point Elasticity
Elasticity of
of Demand
Demand (An
(An Example)
Example)
 Assume
 Price increases from $8 to $10 quantity
demanded falls from 6 to 4
 Percent change in price equals:
$2/$8 = 25% or $2/$10 = 20%
 Percent change in quantity equals:
-2/6 = -33.33% or -2/4 = -50%

Chapter 4 Slide 45
Market Demand
Point
Point Elasticity
Elasticity of
of Demand
Demand (An
(An Example)
Example)

 Elasticity equals:
-33.33/25 = -1.33 or -50/20 = -2.5
 Which one is correct?

Chapter 4 Slide 46
Market Demand

 Arc Elasticity of Demand

 Arc elasticity calculates elasticity over a
range of prices
 Its formula is:

EP  ( Q/ P)( P / Q)
P  the average price
Q  the average quantity
Chapter 4 Slide 47
Market Demand

 Arc Elasticity of Demand (An Example)

EP  ( Q/P)( P / Q)

10  8
P1  8 P 2  10 P 9
2
64
Q1  6 Q2  4 Q 5
2
Ep  (2 / $2)($9 / 5)  1.8
Chapter 4 Slide 48
An Example:

The Aggregate Demand For Wheat

 The demand for U.S. wheat is
comprised of domestic demand and
export demand.

Chapter 4 Slide 49
The Aggregate Demand For Wheat

 The domestic demand for wheat is

given by the equation:
 QDD = 1700 - 107P

 The export demand for wheat is

given by the equation:
 QDE = 1544 - 176P

Chapter 4 Slide 50
The Aggregate Demand For Wheat

 Domestic demand is relatively price

inelastic (-0.2), while export demand
is more price elastic (-0.4).

Chapter 4 Slide 51
The Aggregate Demand For Wheat

Price
($/bushel) 20
18
Total world demand is
16 A the horizontal sum of the
domestic demand AB and
14 export demand CD.
12
10
C E
8
6 Total Demand
4 Export
Demand Domestic
Demand
2 F Wheat(million bushels/yr.)
D B
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Chapter 4 Slide 52
Consumer Surplus

 Consumer Surplus
 The difference between the maximum
amount a consumer is willing to pay for
a good and the amount actually paid.

Chapter 4 Slide 53
Consumer Surplus
Price The consumer surplus
($ per 20 of purchasing 6 concert
ticket) tickets is the sum of the
19 surplus derived from
18 each one individually.

17
16
Consumer Surplus
15
6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 =
14 21 Market Price

13

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rock Concert Tickets

Chapter 4 Slide 54
Consumer Surplus

 The stepladder demand curve can be

converted into a straight-line demand
curve by making the units of the
good smaller.

Chapter 4 Slide 55
Consumer Surplus
Price Consumer Surplus
($ per 20
ticket) for the Market Demand
19
18
17
16 Consumer
Surplus
15
1/2x(20  14)x6,500  $19,500
14 Market Price

13
Demand Curve
Actual
Expenditure

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rock Concert Tickets

Chapter 4 Slide 56
Consumer Surplus

 Combining consumer surplus with

the aggregate profits that producers
obtain we can evaluate:
1) Costs and benefits of different
market structures
2) Public policies that alter the
behavior of consumers and
firms
Chapter 4 Slide 57
Summary

 Individual consumers’ demand

curves for a commodity can be
derived from information about their
tastes for all goods and services and
from their budget constraints.
 Engel curves describe the
relationship between the quantity of a
good consumed and income.

Chapter 4 Slide 58
Summary

 Two goods are substitutes (complements)

if an increase (decrease) in the price of
one good leads to an increase in the
quantity demanded of the other.
 The effect of a price change on the
quantity demanded can be broken into a
substitution effect and an income effect.

Chapter 4 Slide 59
Summary

 The market demand curve is the

horizontal summation of the
individual demand curves for all
consumers.
 The percent change in quantity
demanded that results from a one
percent change in price determines
elasticity of demand.

Chapter 4 Slide 60
Individual and
Market Demand