Chapter 13

Fluid Mechanics

A fluid is a substance that flows easily and has no definite shape. A fluid
can be a liquid or a gas. In addition to no definite shape, a gas also lacks
a definite volume; it will fill any container that holds it. Unlike liquids
gases are easy to compress; liquids can be compressed but the effect is
negligible.
Density in Liquids and Buoyancy
Density (ƿ = m/v) is the ratio of mass to volume. Any solid object that is
less dense than water will float. It is possible to compare densities of
various substances by using specific gravity- a substance’s specific
gravity is the ratio of that substance's density to the density of water at
40C (39.20F). The density of water at 40C is 1000kg/m3; it can also be
expressed as 1g/cm3.
 Examples of Calculating Specific Gravity
The density of gold at room temperature is 19,300 kg/m3.
Specific gravity gold = 19300 kg/m3 ÷ 1000 kg/m3 = 19.3
Specific gravity has no units, because they cancel out.
Any substance with a specific gravity greater than 1 sinks in pure water;
anything with a specific gravity less than 1 floats( for example ice has a
specific gravity of. 917 and will float)

Density and Buoyant Force

If substances such as gold, silver, copper, aluminum,etc sink, then how
can something such as an aircraft carrier or a super tanker float?
 Archimedes’s Principle
Archimedes’s Principle provides that any fluid exerts a force on an object wholly or
partially submerged in it, and the magnitude of the force equals the weight of the fluid
displaced (displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid pushing it out of
the way and taking its place) by the object; this force is buoyant force. Buoyancy is
caused by differences in pressure acting upon an imersed object in a static fluid.
Because of buoyancy, objects appear to weigh less in water than in the air. Apparent
Weight – is the weight of an object that is immersed in water. There are three types of
buoyancy: negative, positive, and neutral. Negative buoyancy exists for an object
when it is more dense than the water in which it is immersed; the object will sink.
Positive buoyancy exists for an object when it is less dense than the water in which it
is immersed; the object will float. Neutral buoyancy exists when an object’s average
density is equal to the density of the fluid in which it is immersed; the object will
neither float or sink.
Calculating Buoyancy: Three formulas
FB (buoyancy)=ƿf (density of displaced fluid)Vf(volume of displaced fluid)g (acceleration
of gravity)
 Forces that affect buoyancy
1. The density of the fluid
2. The volume of the fluid displaced
3. The acceleration of gravity
Buoyant force is not affected by:
4. The mass of the immersed object
5. The density of the immersed.
 Calculating Buoyancy
The unit for buoyancy is the Newton (1kg/m/sec2)
FB = (density of the displaced fluid)Vf (volume of the displaced fluid)g (acc of gravity)
FB = Weight of an object – apparent weight of object

FB= weight of a floating object

Fgrav = m( in kg) x 9.8N/kg
What percentage of a floating object will be submerged?
Density of the object/ Density of liquid
 How much of a floating object will be submerged?
(Density of the fluid)(the volume submerged)= (the density of the
object)(the volume of the object)
 Pressure in Fluids
Volume of displaced water converted to N equals
buoyant force. Multiply mL by .0098N to get weight of
water
 Pressure in Fluids

In terms of physics, pressure is a ratio of force to area (P=F /A); an example would be
filling a tire with air in terms of psi. Pressure is a scalar quantity. Units of pressure can
be expressed in terms of N/m2( this has a special name a Pascal ) or pounds per square
inch.
*You do not have to be immersed in water to experience pressure from a fluid. The
weight of the air above you also exerts pressure. At sea level air pressure (air
pressuresea level) equals 1.013 x 105Pa which also equals 1atm or 14.7 psi Why don’t you
feel it?. Air pressure varies with altitude; it decreases as altitude increases.
In water, pressure is a function of depth; pressure increases with depth.
Example: You are at the bottom of a pool and you have a force of 1.2 x 105Pa on the
back of your hand which has an area of about 8.4 x 10-3 square meters
F =PA
(1.2 x 105 Pa) (8.4 x 10-3m2)
(1.2 x 105 N/m2) (8.4 x 10-3m2)
= 1 x 103N or about 230 psi
 A diver descends to a depth of 50 meters. What is the difference in
pressure between his initial depth and his final depth?
ΔP=(density)(g)(h)--- h is the difference in height
(1,000kg/m3)(9.8m/sec2)(50m)
490000Pa or 4.9 x 105Pa
A look at units in the above problem
(kg/m3)(m/s2)(m)= kgm/s2 x 1/m2
N/m2 =Pa
To get the total pressure you must also add in the atmospheric pressure
to the answer:
4.9 x 105 + 1.013 x 105=5.913 x 105Pa
 Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle provides that given a fluid in a totally enclosed system,
a change in pressure at one point in the fluid is transmitted to all points
in the fluid as well as to the encasing walls. For example, if you have a
fluid in a pipe and change the pressure in the fluid at one end of the
pipe, the pressure changes all throughout the pipe to match. (Again
F = PA)
Hydraulic systems uses constant pressure with different areas to
magnify force. A hydraulic system is a device that uses pressurized fluid
acting on pistons of different sizes to produce force. Typically, hydraulic
systems use a small piston at one end of an enclosed system and a large
piston at the other end thereby creating huge forces. For example, if
the area of the larger piston is 100 times the area of the smaller piston,
the force the larger piston applies will be 100 times that of the smaller
piston. You would have to push the smaller piston 100 times as far as
the second piston will move to generate the maximum force.
 Formulas for Pascal’s Principle (Enclosed Hydraulic System)
P1= F1/ A1

P2= F2/A2
Because of Pascal’s Principle we know that P1 must equal P2; therefore
F1/A1 = F2/A2
To solve for the increase in force resulting from force being applied on
A1 we get:
F2 = A2/A1 (F1)
F2 is increased by the ratio of A2 to A1
 Problem
A barber raises his customer in the barber’s chair by applying a force of
150N to a piston that has an area of .01m2. If the second piston has an
area of .1m2, what is the resulting force? Assume the chair has a mass of
5kg.
F2= A2/A1(F1)
F2 = .1m2/.01m2(150N)
F2= 1500N
How massive a customer could the chair raise?
Once you know that the maximum force is 1500N you can calculate the
maximum mass that the chair can lift.
m= F / g
m= 1500N/9.8m.sec2
m= 153kg – 5kg (mass of chair)=148kg
 Fluid Continuity
When fluid moves through a full pipe the volume of fluid that enters the
pipe equals the volume of the fluid that leaves the pipe even if the
diameter of the pipe changes. The volume of fluid moving through the
pipe at any particular point is known as flow rate which equals the area
As the
of the pipe at that point multiplied by the velocity of the fluid.
diameter of the pipe increases the velocity of the fluid
decreases; as the diameter of the pipe decreases, the
velocity of the fluid increases.
Equation for Continuity of Fluids
A1v1 = A2v2
 Continuity of Fluids Problem
Water runs through a water main that has a cross sectional area of .4m2
with a velocity of 6 m/sec. Calculate the velocity of the water in the pipe
where the pipe tapers down to a cross sectional area of .3m2.
v2 = (A1 / A2) v1
V2 = (.4m2/.3m2) 6m/sec
V2 = 8m/sec
 Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s Principle provides that as the speed of a fluid increases the

pressure within the fluid decreases.
Bernoulli’s principle has important implications for aeronautics
There are four primary forces that act upon aircraft in flight: Weight ,
lift, drag, and thrust. Weight is the measure of the force of gravity on an
object. Max weight of an A380 is approximately 1.2 million pounds. Lift
is the upward force generated by air passing over and under the wings
of an aircraft thereby producing low pressure above the wing relative to
high pressure beneath the wing. Drag is the force that resists the motion
of an aircraft through the air. Thrust is the force generated when air is
pushed rearward by jet engines or propellers resulting in the forward
movement of an aircraft.
 The ancient Chinese experimented with kites and knew that curved
surfaces generate more lift than flat surfaces.
Airfoils- an object (example: a wing of an aircraft) with a special shape
that is designed to produce lift when an object moves through the air.
Airfoils involve the use of a camber which is the curvature of an airfoil
section relative to its chord.
The shape of the wings on an aircraft are designed so that the air is
moving faster over the top of the wind compared to the speed of the air
beneath the wing. Using Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure above the
wing will be less than the pressure below the wing thereby producing
lift. Remember high pressure flows to low pressure.
Bernoulli’s Principle applies only to subsonic flight!
Speed of sound is 767.2mph
 Buoyancy Problems
Example 1. A block of wood has the following dimensions: length = 2.5m , width =
0.5m, and height = 0.4m. Calculate buoyant force.
Volume of the block = length x width x height
Volume = 2.5m x 0.5m x 0.4m
Volume = 0.5 m3
Fb = p(density of water) x g (acceleration of gravity) x v (volume)
1,000kg/m3 x 9.8 m/sec2 x 0.5m3 = 4,900 kg.m/sec2 = 4,900N
Wings