Continuity : Genes

and Species
Characteristics
Prepared by Ananda Squire
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEFINING
HOMOLOGOUS
01 CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES 02
AND GENES

GENOTYPES AND
03 ALLELES PHENOTYPES 04
EXXPLAINED
01
CHROMOSOM
ES AND
GENES
 WHAT ARE CHROMOSOMES?
A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is made up
of proteins and DNA organized into genes. Each human cell normally
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Each species has a specific number
of chromosomes in its cells, and its
own number and variety of genes.
This is what makes their body
chemistry, their appearance and their
behaviour different from those of
other organisms.
 Genes are
arranged into :

DNA strands which make up :

CHROMOSOMES!!
 WHAT ARE GENES?
The fundamental unit of heredity; a specific section of DNA within a
chromosome that codes for a specific protein. The genes for each species are
carried from one generation to the next in the reproductive cells. This ensures
that the special characteristics of each species are preserved. It is the genes
on the chromosomes which determine all sort of things about you.- e.g- your
eye colour, your height etc.
Humans have a large number of genes,
approximately 31,000. Every cell in your body
has an exact copy of all your genes. But, unless
you are an identical twin, there is no-one else in
the world that has the exact combination of
genes as you do. Your genes make you unique.
How do you look different from your siblings or
other family members?
 HOW DO GENES
WORK?
Genes work by providing information about making proteins. For example:
Every chemical reaction inside a living organism is catalysed by enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins. So, by providing information for making enzymes, genes
affect all the chemical reactions in an organism's body.
Each cell contains many genes which carry the information for making many
proteins. But not all of these genes are used by any one cell. Just a few genes
will be “switched on” in any one cell at any time. If you had red hair, for
example you must have a red hair gene ( i.e a gene that provides information for
the creation of proteins that will allow your hair to be red). But this gene will
only have an effect in cells where hair grows, such as on your scalp. In heart
cells, this gene will be switched off.
02
HOMOLOGOU
S
CHROMOSOM
ES
 WHAT ARE HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES?
There are in fact 23
pairs of chromosomes
in a cell. The two
chromosomes in a pair
are the same size and
shape. The two
chromosomes of a pair
are called homologous
chromosomes. One
came from the person’s
mother, and the other
from the father.
 WHAT ARE HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES?
Each chromosome of a homologous pair carries genes for the same
characteristic in the same place. For example, the two chromosomes of
pair number 1 might each carry a gene for tongue rolling. The tongue-
rolling gene will be exactly the same position, or locus, on each
chromosome. Because there are two of each kind of chromosome, each
cell contains two of a kind of gene.
03
Alleles
 WHAT ARE ALLELES?
Alleles are alternative versions of a gene. Each cell has two genes for any
characteristic. For example:
In each of your cells, there are two genes giving instructions about
whether or not you can roll your tongue. In humans, there are two types of
tongue rolling gene. One kind, R, allows you to roll your tongue. The other
kind r, does not. These two kinds of gene, defining a characteristic in different
ways, are called alleles.
 WHAT ARE ALLELES?

There are three possible combinations of alleles for tongue rolling. You might
have two R alleles, RR. You might have two r alleles, rr. Or you might have
one of each allele, Rr/rR. If two alleles for tongue rolling in your cells are the
same (RR or rr), then they are said to be homozygous for tongue rolling. If
they are different (Rr), then you are heterozygous for tongue rolling.
 DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE ALLELES
Even though there are three possible different combinations of alleles for tongue
rolling there are only two possible traits that will be manifested: Either the person
can roll their tongue or they can’t. How is this possible?
It happens because the tongue-rolling allele, R, is dominant over the non-tongue
rolling allele, r. If you are heterozygous for tongue rolling Rr, then it is only the R
allele which actually determines whether or not you can roll your tongue. The effect
of the r allele is hidden by the R allele. The r allele is said to be a recessive allele. If
a person has a dominant allele they will take on the trait.
Therefore a person who can roll their tongue either has RR or Rr.
 CODOMINANCE
Some alleles show codominance. This is because
sometimes neither pair of alleles is dominant or recessive.
Instead of one of them hiding the other in a heterozygote, they
both show equally. This is called codominance.
Imagine a kind of flower which has two alleles for flower
colour. The allele Cᵂ produces white flowers, while the allele
Cᴿ produces red ones.
The homozygous flowers would be either:
CᵂCᵂ, for white flowers
CᴿCᴿ, for red flowers
The heterozygous flowers would have the alleles:
CᵂCᴿ making pink flowers as neither of these are more
dominant.
 CODOMINANCE
The inheritance of blood groups is another
example of codominance.
The inheritance of the ABO blood group
antigens in humans is another example of
codominance. There are three alleles of the gene
governing this instead of the usual two. Alleles Iᴬ
and Iᴮ are codominant, but both are dominant to
Iᴼ. Offspring from a mating of homozygous IᴬIᴬ
and IᴮIᴮ individuals have the blood type AB, in
which characteristics of both A and B antigens are
expressed.
03
Genotypes and
Phenotypes
Explained
 WHAT ARE GENOTYPES and
PHENOTYPES?
A Genotype is the combination of alleles an organism inherits from its parents
(genes). For example: The three possible genotypes for tongue rolling as mentioned
before are RR, Rr and rr. The genotype determines whether or not you can roll
your tongue.
The effect that the genotype has is called your phenotype. Your phenotype for
tongue rolling is either being able to do it or not being able to do it.

Genotype Phenotype

RR Tongue roller

Rr Tongue Roller

rr Non-Tongue Roller
 QUESTIONS!!

1. Of what are chromosome made?

2. Explain how genes affect all the chemical reactions in an organism’s body?
3. a) The allele for brown eyes is dominant to the allele for blue eyes. Write
down suitable symbols for these alleles.
b) What will be the phenotype of a person who is heterozygous for this
characteristic?
4. What is incomplete dominance?