Computer Networks

 Overview
 What is a network?
 Types of network (LAN & WAN)
 Advantages & Disadvantages.
 Hardware
 Fileserver, Workstation, NIC, Router
 Software Operating Systems
 Peer-to-Peer
 Client/Server
 Cabling
 UTP, Coaxial, Fiber Optic
 Wireless
 Protocols
 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 Topologies
What is a Network?

A network consists of two or more

computers that are linked in order to
share resources (such as printers and CD-
ROMs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked
through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.
 TYPES OF NETWORKS
The three basic types of networks include: LAN, MAN
and WAN.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
 A network is said to be Local Area Network (LAN) if it is
confined relatively to a small area. It is generally limited to a
building or a geographical area, expanding not more than a
mile apart to other computers.
LAN configuration consist of:
 A file server - stores all of the software that controls the network,
as well as the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network.
 A workstation - computers connected to the file server (Mac or
PCs). These are less powerful than the file server
 Cables - used to connect the network interface cards in each
computer.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger
geographic areas, such as cities. Often used by local
libraries and government agencies often to connect to
citizens and private industries.
 
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
 Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic
areas, such as London, the UK, or the world. In this type
of network dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite
uplinks may be used.
 ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK
 Speed. Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus
saving time, while maintaining the integrity of the file.
 Cost. Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can
be costly. Networkable versions are available at considerable savings.
Shared programs, on a network allows for easier upgrading of the
program on one single file server, instead of upgrading individual
workstations. 
 Security. Sensitive files and programs on a network are passwords
protected (established for specific directories to restrict access to
authorized users) or designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not have
to worry about illegal copying of programs.
 Centralized Software Management. Software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server) eliminating that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers
throughout the building. 
 ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK
 Resource Sharing. Resources such as, printers, fax
machines and modems can be shared. 
 Electronic Mail. E-mail aids in personal and
professional communication. Electronic mail on a
LAN can enable staff to communicate within the
building having tot to leave their desk. 
 Flexible Access. Access their files from computers
throughout the firm. 
 Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software
(such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many users
to work on a document or project concurrently
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK
 Server faults stop applications being available
 Network faults can cause loss of data.
 Network fault could lead to loss of resources
 User work dependent upon network
 System open to hackers
 Decisions tend to become centralized
 Could become inefficient
 Could degrade in performance
 Resources could be located too far from users
 Network management can become difficult
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS

 Initial installation expense can be

costly
 Fileserver may fail causing entire
network to go down
 Proper administration requires
considerable time and expertise
 Cables may break
HARDWARE

Fileserver
A file server stands at the heart of most
networks. It is a very fast computer with a
large amount of RAM and storage space,
along with a fast network interface card.
The network operating system software
resides on this computer, along with any
software applications and data files that
need to be shared.
HARDWARE
Workstations
All of the computers connected to the file
server on a network are called workstations. A
typical workstation is a computer that is
configured with a network interface card,
networking software, and the appropriate
cables. Workstations do not necessarily need
floppy disk drives or hard drives because files
can be saved on the file server. Almost any
computer can serve as a network workstation.
HARDWARE

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides
the physical connection between the
network and the computer workstation.
Most NICs are internal, with the card
fitting into an expansion slot inside the
computer.
HARDWARE
Concentrators/Hubs
A concentrator is a device that provides a central
connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals. Hubs are multi-slot
concentrators into which can be plugged a
number of multi-port cards to provide additional
access as the network grows in size. Most
concentrators are active, that is they electrically
amplify the signal as it moves from one device to
another.
HARDWARE

Router
If a LAN connects to the Internet a network
will need router. The router serves as the
translator between the information on the
LAN and the Internet. It also determines
the best route to send the data over the
Internet.
SOFTWARE
Network Operating Systems
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems
allow users to share resources and files
located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other
computers. However, they do not have a
file server or a centralized management
source. In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all
have the same abilities to use the resources
available on the network. Peer-to-peer
networks are designed primarily for small
to medium local area networks
SOFTWARE

Client/Server
Client/server network operating systems allow
the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file
servers. The file servers become the heart of
the system, providing access to resources and
providing security. Individual workstations
(clients) have access to the resources available
on the file servers.
 NETWORKS
Cabling
Cable is the medium through which
information usually moves from one
network device to another.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded
and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the
most popular and is the type we use. The quality of
UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to
extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs
of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a
different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical
devices. There are 5 categories recognized.
UTP Connectors

The standard connector for UTP cabling is an

RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector
that looks like a large telephone-style
connector. RJ stands for Registered Jack,
implying that the connector follows a standard
borrowed from the telephone industry. This
standard designates which wire goes with each
pin inside the connector.
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor

at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided
metal shield. The metal shield helps to block
any outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers.
Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used

with coaxial cables is the BNC connector.
Different types of adapters are available for
BNC connectors, including a T-connector,
barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors
on the cable are the weakest points in any
network. To help avoid problems BNC
connectors should be crimped.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than
electronic signals, eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. Fiber optic cable has the
ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also
has the capability to carry information at vastly
greater speeds.
Wireless LANs
Not all networks are connected with cabling; some
networks are wireless. Wireless LANs use high
frequency radio signals or infrared light beams to
communicate between the workstations and the file
server. Each workstation and file server on a wireless
network has some sort of transceiver/ antenna to
send and receive the data. Information is relayed
between transceivers as if they were physically
connected. For longer distance, wireless
communications can also take place through cellular
telephone technology or by satellite.
Wireless LANs
Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop
computers or remote computers to connect to
the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial
in older buildings where it may be difficult or
impossible to install cables.

This includes all computers, peripherals,

interface cards and other equipment needed to
perform data processing and communications
within the network.
PROTOCOL
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the
communications between computers on a
network. These rules are guidelines that regulate
the access method, allowed physical topologies,
types of cabling, and speed of data transfer. 
The most common protocols are:
 Ethernet
 Local Talk
 Token Ring
 FDDI
 ATM
ETHERNET
This is the most widely used protocol. This protocol uses an
access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). In this system each computer listens
to the cable for any transmitting node before sending anything
through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. Else wait and try again when the line is clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same
instant (causing a collision). Each computer then backs off and
waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit.
The delay by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does
not normally affect the speed of transmission on the network.

Topologies are bus star or tree and transmission is via twisted

pair, coaxial, or fibre optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps. 
Fast Ethernet
Support 100Mbps and are more expensive
network concentrators/hubs and network
interface cards is requires for Fast Ethernet.
Category 5 twisted pair or fibre optic cable is
necessary. 

Gigabit Ethernet
The Ethernet has a standard protocol of 1Gbps
transmission speed but used primarily for
backbones on a network.
LOCAL TALK
Apple Computer developed LocalTalk for
Macintosh computers. The method used by
LocalTalk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is
similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer
signals its intent to transmit before it actually
does so. LocalTalk adapters and special twisted
pair cable can be used to connect a series of
computers through the serial port.

LocalTalk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or

tree topologies using twisted pair cable. 
TOKEN RING
This was developed by IBM in the mid 1980s. The
method used involves token-passing. Computers are
connected so that the signal travels around the
network from one computer to another in a logical
ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring
from one computer to the next. If a computer does
not have information to transmit, it simply passes
the token on to the next workstation. If a computer
wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it
attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds
around the ring until it comes to the computer for
which the data is meant. At this point, the receiving
computer captures the data.  
FIBRE DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE
(FDDI)
Access method of token-passing via a dual ring physical
topology. Transmission on one of the rings; however, if a
break occurs, the system keeps information moving by
automatically using portions of the second ring to create a
new complete ring. Transmission speed is100 Mbps over a
fiber optic cable, but expensive.
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)
Transmits data in small packets of a fixed size
at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. ATM
supports a variety of media such as video, CD-
quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a
star topology with fibre optic or twisted pair
cabling.
NETWORKS TOPOLOGIES

Physical Topologies
The configuration of cables, computers,
and other peripherals.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

 The term topology refers to the way in which the nodes of a

network are connected.

 The topology of a network will effect its performance (it

terms of speed) and its cost (both short and long term).

 Cost/resource considerations and the environment in which

the network is to be used often determines the choice of
topology.
 A network topology is the way in which a network is connected
up.

 The simplest network topology you can have is a single link (i.e.
cable, optical fibre, radio or any other means of transmitting
data) between two computers.

 It may not be a very big network, but technically it is still a

network. The computers can exchange data and they are
autonomous.
COMMON TOPOLOGIES

Some common topologies include:

 MESH
 STAR
 BUS
 TREE
 RING
 BACKBONE
MESH TOPOLOGY
 A randomly connected network is called a mesh topology.
Mesh topologies are most suited to networks that are built up
over time.
 The Internet is a mesh
topology. It has been
added to over time with
no central control.
 Mesh topologies are
easily extended.
 Often there is more than one possible route for messages to
follow. If one path fails then another can be used.
 There is no simple algorithm for routing messages. Messages
are often sent over sub-optimal paths.
 Control and security can be difficult to enforce effectively.
STAR TOPOLOGY
 If all the hosts are connected to a central hub (which can be a
switching device or a central server also acting as a router)
then we have a star topology.
 Hosts communicate by sending their
messages to the hub. It then
forwards the messages to the
destination host.
 Star topologies are popular with
financial institutions who keep their
latest records on a central server.
Any changes to the records are
updated centrally.

 It’s easy to control and monitor access to a central server.

 Cabling costs can still be high if network is spread out.
 The central hub may be a bottleneck in busy networks.
 STAR NETWORKS
 The hub switches messages through to the
appropriate destination.

 The hub may also provide a translation service for

devices with different protocols.

 Star Networks are vulnerable, however. If the hub

fails then the network fails.

 Star Networks may require a lot of cabling and can

be expensive to install.
BUS NETWORKS
A bus network consists of a single medium (typically 5 pair
twisted-wire cable) to which all the host computers are
connected.

Host
Computers Bi-directional
medium

Network Terminator
Interface Units

Packets are broadcasted on the medium to all nodes on the

network.
BUS TOPOLOGY
We can make a cheap network by connecting not just two but a
number of hosts to a single link. Such a network is said to have
a bus topology. It is also called a multi-drop link.

Although physically simple, bus topologies need a complicated

protocol in order to ensure that hosts get fair use of the link
and do not attempt to use the link at the same time. This can
slow things down in a busy network.
 TREE NETWORKS
 A tree network (as used in LANs) is a variant of the Bus
topology.

 Nodes are connected in a tree structure and messages are

broadcast across whole tree.
 TREE Networks
 Tree topologies have the advantage that they are
easy to expand.

 Furthermore, if a fault occurs, the effected branch

can be easily isolated so that the rest of the network
is not effected.

 The disadvantage is that signals can be reflected

from the ends of branches and cause interference.
For this reason, Tree Networks are usually run at
lower speeds.
TREE TOPOLOGY
 A tree topology has a root and branches that gives it a
distinctive tree shape.

 Messages pass up the tree until

they reach a branching point in
common with the destination
host. They are then passed
down the tree to the
destination.

 Tree topology is easily extended.

 There is a simple algorithm for routing messages.
 A large number messages pass through the root, which may
become a communications bottleneck.
RING TOPOLOGY
 A Ring network consists of nodes connected to each other to
form a closed loop.

 Nodes accept data from neighbouring nodes in the form of

packets.
RING TOPOLOGY
OPERATION
 The NIUs (or, in some cases, the hosts themselves) act as
repeaters for the packets being forwarded.

 This means that the Ring can be expanded to any size (although
more hops will be required to get the packets to their
destinations).

 One big advantage of Ring Topologies is that contention is

avoided since each repeater knows if it has to forward an
existing packet or is free to accept a new one.
RING TOPOLOGY
 In a Ring Topology hosts are connected to their neighbours to
form a loop.
 Messages are passed from
one host to the next until
they reach the destination
host.
 Typically messages pass
the whole way around the
ring and are checked and
removed by the hosts that
sent them.
 Less cabling is required because neighbouring hosts are not
usually far apart.
 A break in one of the links will stop the network from working
(but failures can be quickly detected and fixed).
 BACKBONE NETWORK

 A backbone network connects many smaller networks via

devices called bridges.

 This type of network is easy to expand and isolates local traffic.

BACKBONE NETWORK
 Rather than connecting hosts directly, a network can be used
to connect other networks. Such a network is called a
backbone network.
 Most messages are sent between
nearby hosts which are usually
connected to the same local networks.
 A message for a host on another
network is sent (via bridges) over the
backbone to the destination network.

 Backbone networks are often used by institutions to connect

legacy networks.
 Small networks of networks, such as those formed with a
backbone network, are often called intranets.