Metals and Alloys

Metals and Alloys

• Metal: Class of elements existing as oxide,
carbonate, sulphide and phosphate compounds in
natural rocks called ores.
• Ferrous metals: metals in which iron (Fe) is the
main constituent.
• Non-Ferrous metals: metals in which iron is not
the main constituent. Aluminum, copper, zinc,
lead, tin, etc.

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 Metals
Metals

Non-Ferrous Ferrous Non-Ferrous

Metals Metals Alloys

Aluminum Pig Iron Brass

Copper Cast Iron Bronze

Wrought
Zinc Duralumin
Iron

Lead, Tin, German

Steel
etc Silver

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 Iron
• Iron is available in abundance, but it does not occur freely
in nature. The iron content of main ores are:
– Magnetite (Fe3O4) 70-75% iron
– Haematite (Fe2O3) 70% iron
– Limonite (2Fe2O3. 3H2O) 60% iron
– Iron Pyrite (FeS) 47% iron
– Siderite (FeCO3) 40% iron
• Iron can combine with other elements and its properties
is markedly altered and improved for varying conditions
of service.

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 Fracture, brittle & ductile behavior
• Fracture is the separation of a component into two or more pieces
under the action of a static or slowly changing imposed load, at
temperatures that are low compared with the melting temperature
of the material.
• Brittle fracture occurs when a material absorbs little or no energy
before fracture.
• Ductile fracture requires a material that can experience
appreciable plastic (i.e. irreversible) deformation and energy
absorption before fracture.
• The area under the stress–strain curve up to fracture is a measure
of the energy absorbed per unit volume of material, and is termed
the toughness of the material.

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Fracture

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Schematic of brittle & ductile fractures

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 Mechanical properties of metals
Ultimate tensile
Yield point, yield strength
stress, elastic limit

Elastic

Permanent
strain

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 Conversion of raw material
Iron ore Coke Limestone

Blast furnace Slag

Pig iron Pig iron casting

Open hearth furnace Basic oxygen furnace Electric arc furnace

Caste iron to wrought iron to steel

Alloying agents

Continuous casting Ingots Soaking pits Primary rolling

Structural shapes, Rails, Bars, Wires, Pipes,

Plates, Sheets 9
 Steel
• In steel the carbon content is in chemically combined
form and may exist up to 1.5%
• For a material to be classified as steel there should be no
free graphite in its composition. Any free carbon makes it
as cast iron
• Steel categories
– Dead mild steel less than 0.15% carbon
– Mild, soft, low carbon steel 0.15 to 0.3% carbon
– Medium carbon steel 0.3 to 0.8% carbon
– High carbon steel 0.8 to 1.5% carbon

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 Classification of steel
Steel

Carbon Steels Alloy Steels

Mild Steel Stainless Steel

High Carbon
Nickel Steel
Steel
High Tension
Vanadium Steel
Steel
Reinforcing
Tungsten Steel
Steel

Manganese Steel

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 Dead Mild/High tension steel
• High Tension Steel
– Low carbon steel with carbon nearly 0.15%
– Extensively used in reinforcing pre-stressed concrete light
structures, Cables, Steel rope etc

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 Mild steel
• Steel with carbon content 0.15 to 0.3%
• Called mild steel, low carbon steel or soft steel
• Uses
– Used in construction work as rolled sections, I-sec, T-sec,
channels, angle irons, etc
– Mild Steel round bars used in RCC as reinforcement
– Plain and corrugated sheets as roofing
– Used in manufacture of various tools, equipment, machine
parts

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Rolled sections, I-sec, T-sec,
Channels, Angle irons

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 High carbon steel
• Steel where ,the carbon content is from 0.55 to
1.5%
• Uses
– Manufacture of tools like drills, files, chisels
– Fine quality of cutlery
– Parts of machines requiring to withstand shocks and
vibrations

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 Reinforcing steel
• Reinforcing Steel
– Mild steel or Dead Mild/high tension steel is
embedded as reinforcement in plain cement concrete
to provide tensile strength
– Flat, square and round bars used
– Welded wire mesh also used as reinforcement

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 Alloy steels
• Stainless Steel
• Nickel Steel
• Vanadium Steel
• Tungsten Steel
• Manganese Steel

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 Preservation of steel
• Rusting: Oxidation of iron at the surface, which is
activated by presence of moisture and carbon
dioxide and accelerated by atmospheric pollution
• Iron → ferrous bicarbonate → ferric bicarbonate
→ hydrated ferric oxide
• Corrosion: Phenomenon of slow but steady eating
away of metal due to rust formation

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 Preservation of steel
• Tarring: dipping of iron in hot coal tar to form a
film on metal. Pipes or pole ends
• Painting: application of lead paints on exposed
metal surfaces like roof trusses, bridge structure,
etc
• Enameling: smaller surfaces treated with enamel
• Galvanizing: depositing a fine film of zinc on iron
surface

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 Preservation of steel
• Tin plating: dipping in bath of molten tin
• Electroplating: depositing a thin film of nickel,
chromium, cadmium, copper or zinc by the
electrolysis process. Metal surface is cathode and
deposition metal is anode

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