POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

LOPEZ, QUEZON BRANCH

Construction Materials and Testing

 CIEN 30023
BSCE 2

ENGR. ANTONIO P. CURVA

PART-TIME INSTRUCTOR 1
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete
4. Bituminous Materials
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works
6. Timber
7. Glass
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys • Introduction

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction • Metal and Alloys in
Constructions
3. Concrete • Forming of Metals
4. Bituminous Materials • Deformation and
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works Strengthening of Metals
• Materials Testing and
6. Timber Equipment
7. Glass
1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Introduction Metals and alloys are materials that are typically
hard, malleable, and have good electrical and
Useful metals have been known to mankind for a thermal conductivity. Alloys are made by melting
long time and probably came into service very two or more elements together, at least one of them
gradually. When metals became available they a metal. They have properties that improve those of
offered many advantages over stone and timber the constituent elements, such greater strength or
tools and weapons. They could be strong and hard, resistance to corrosion.
but their chief advantages were in their ductility.
This enabled them to withstand a blow, and a range
of shaping procedures and hence products became
possible. The significance to us all is encapsulated
in the ideas of the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron
Age.

1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Metals and Alloys in Construction
Iron and Steel are two of the most common
materials used in the manufacturing industry. They
are used to make a wide range of products and
components. While iron and steel look similar,
though, they are two unique materials with their
own respective characteristics and qualities.
Cast iron was a major 19th century building material of the
Industrial Revolution. Although brittle, it is remarkably
strong in compression. It was frequently used for structural
purposes, such as columns, building fronts, domes and light
courts. Decorative uses have included stairs, elevators,
lintels, grilles, verandas, balconies, railings, fences,
streetlights, and tombs.
Sheet iron can be subject to rapid corrosion, forming rust.
Sheet iron was used throughout the 19th century, although
it is not clear how widespread sheet iron roofs became.
Pressed decorative sheet iron used for ceilings was
frequently called a “tin ceiling,” which was actually sheets of
iron dipped in molten tin to prevent them from rusting.

Iron has become an important architectural building component. It has been used in four common forms:
wrought iron, cast iron, sheet iron, and steel.

Wrought iron was used for minor structural and decorative elements starting in the 18th century. Until the
mid-19th century, the use of wrought iron in buildings was generally limited to small items such as tie rods,
straps, nails, and hardware, or to decorative ironwork in balconies, railings fences and gates.

1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Metals and Alloys in Construction
Steel was introduced to the construction industry
at the end of the 19th century. The development of
structural steel in the mid-19th century allowed
construction of tall buildings. Builders and
manufacturers turned to steel, which was stronger
than cast iron in compression and wrought iron in
tension.
Steel is one of the basic materials used in today’s
civil engineering industry due to its proven high
strength and durability. Steel is an alloy of iron and
a number of other elements, mainly carbon, that
has a high tensile strength and relatively low cost.
Stainless steel is a group of iron-based alloys that
contain a minimum of approximately 11%
chromium, a composition that prevents the iron
from rusting and also provides heat-resistant
properties.
Aluminum the use of aluminium in construction is
second only to that of steel. In comparison with
structural steel,aluminium alloys are lightweight,
resistant to weathering and have a lower elastic
modulus, but can be produced with similar
strength grades. They are easily formed into
appropriate sections and can have a variety of
finishes. They are however generally more
expensive than steels.

1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Forming of Metals
Forming, metal forming, is the metalworking
process of fashioning metal parts and objects
through mechanical deformation; the workpiece is
reshaped without adding or removing material,
and its mass remains unchanged. Forming operates
on the materials science principle of plastic
deformation, where the physical shape of a
material is permanently deformed.
Castings
Most common metals can be produced by melting
and casting into moulds. The cast may be of the
shape and dimensions required for the component,
or a prism of material may be produced for further
processing.
Hot working
The working of metals and alloys by rolling, forging,
extrusion etc. depends upon plasticity, which is
usually much greater at high temperatures i.e.
temperatures above the metals’ recrystallisation
temperature. This allows all the common metals to
be heavily deformed, especially in compression,
without breaking. For structural steel members, the
most usual method is by hot rolling between
simple cylindrical or shaped rolls at temperatures
around 1000°C or higher.

1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Forming of Metals
Cold working
Because of their ductility at room temperature
many metals and alloys can be cold worked,
that is to say, shaped at temperatures below
their recrystallisation temperature. This creates
an immense number of dislocations and, as a
consequence, the metal work-hardens and its
yield point is raised. Indeed, for pure metals
and some alloys it is the only way of increasing
the yield strength.
Joining
The design and fabrication of joints between metallic
structural components are obviously crucial factors in
ensuring the success of the structure. Design engineers
have Codes of Practice etc. to help them in their task, but
some understating of the processes involved and relevant
materials’ behaviour is also important. Although adhesive
bonding is being used increasingly for joining metal parts,
the commonest methods are still welding, brazing,
soldering or by mechanical fasteners, such as rivets and
bolts.
Bolting and riveting
Some materials (such as cast iron) do not lend themselves
to joining by welding. Even with materials that can be
welded (such as structural steel) it may not possible to
weld prefabricated elements on a construction site owing
to difficulties of access and working conditions for both
the welder and the welding equipment.
1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Forming of Metals Welding
all welding involves essentially the same sequence
of operations at the joint. The material is heated
Brazing, soldering and gluing
locally to its melting temperature, additional metal
Brazing and soldering, and in some cases gluing,
may or may not be added and the joint is then
involve joining by means of a thin film of a material
allowed to cool naturally.
that has a melting temperature lower than that of
Some protection to the weld to avoid oxidation of
the parent material and which, when melted, flows
the metal when molten and during cooling is often
into the joint, often by capillary action, to form a
provided by a slag layer (which is knocked-off when
thin film which subsequently solidifies. A sound
the weld has cooled) or by working in an
well-brazed or soldered joint should have a
atmosphere of an inert gas such as argon.
strength that is not too different from that of the
parent material.
1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Corrosion of a metal can be defined as its
Deformation and Strengthening of Metals degrading from a reaction with its environment.
This degradation can cause weakening of the metal
by reducing its cross section, by changing its
Oxidation is described as an electrochemical
crystalline structure, or by a gradual chemical
reaction between Oxygen and other substances,
reaction converting the metal to a compound with
whether metal or living tissues. It can also be
less strength.
described as a loss of electrons or Hydrogen atoms,
which results in a gain of Oxygen atoms.
Corrosion is the process of the metal deteriorating.
Rust is often the result of oxidation when it occurs
on metals or metallic materials.
1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Metal testing is a process or procedure used to check composition of an unknown metallic substance.
There are destructive processes and nondestructive processes. Metal testing can also include, determining
the properties of newly forged metal alloys.

With many chemical-property databases readily available, identification of unmarked pure, common

metals can be a quick and easy process. Leaving the original sample in complete, re-usable condition. This
type of testing is nondestructive.

When working with alloys (forged mixtures) of metals however, to determine the exact composition, could
result in the original sample being separated into its starting materials, then measured and calculated.
After the components are known they can be looked up and matched to known alloys. The original sample
would be destroyed in the process. This type of testing is destructive.
1. METALS AND ALLOYS
Nondestructive testing

Raw and finished material undergoes testing

Materials testing and equipment
according to code specifications such as ASME
Destructive testing  Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V. The
In this kind of testing, the material undergoes tested material is not damaged by the test.
mechanical testing and is discarded thereafter. Test Subtypes include:
results are compared with specifications. Subtypes •Visual testing
include: •Dye penetrant inspection
•Bend test •Magnetic particle inspection
•Impact test •Radiographic testing
•Hardness test •Ultrasonic testing
•Tensile test •Leak testing
•Fatigue test •Eddy current testing
•Corrosion resistance test •Remote field electromagnetic testing
•Wear test
 Tensile Testing of Metals is
1. METALS AND ALLOYS a destructive test process
that provides information
Materials testing and equipment about the tensile strength,
yield strength and ductility
Bend test machines are of the material.
typically universal testing
machines specifically
configured to evaluate Corrosion Testing
material ductility, bend determines the
strength, fracture strength, resistance of materials
and resistance to fracture. to corrosion under
certain environmental
Impact Testing of metals is conditions, including
performed to determine the temperature, humidity
impact resistance or and salt water.
toughness of materials by
calculating the amount of
energy absorbed during
fracture
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction • Introduction
3. Concrete • Steel Reinforcement in
Construction
4. Bituminous Materials • Structural Steel
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works Construction
6. Timber • Material Testing

7. Glass
2. METALS AND ALLOYS IN
CONSTRUCTIONS
Introduction
Metals and alloys form the largest group of
engineering materials. Ready availability, ease of
fabrication, and desirable mechanical and physical
properties, are the principal attributes of metals.
Broadly, metallic materials, may be divided into two
large groups—fertous and non-ferrous, depending
on whether the materials have iron or some other
element as the principal constituent. Ferrous
materials can be further grouped into wrought irons,
cast irons, carbon steels, and alloy steels. Common
non-ferrous materials comprise alloys of copper,
aluminium, magnesium, nickel, lead, tin, and zinc.
Steel Reinforcement in Construction
Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and
reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel
wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry
structures to strengthen and hold the concrete in
tension. To improve the quality of the bond with
the concrete, the surface of rebar is often
patterned.
Steel has high tensile and compressive strengths. A
very important property of steel is its high ductility
wherein it can withstand extensive elongation
before it ruptures.
2. METALS AND ALLOYS IN
CONSTRUCTIONS
Structural Steel Construction
Structural steel is a category of steel used for making
construction materials in a variety of shapes. Many
structural steel shapes take the form of an elongated
beam having a profile of a specific cross section.
Structural steel shapes, sizes, chemical composition,
mechanical properties such as strengths, storage
practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most
industrialized countries.
Material Testing
One of the most common and important tests
conducted on steel material is a mechanical
properties test that evaluates the material's yield
point, tensile strength and elongation percentage.
The test ultimately indicates the maximum load the
material can bear before failure.
Yield point is the point where the stress of a force
permanently changes the shape of the material.
Tensile strength is the force required to cause the
material to break or fail. 
Elongation is simply how much a material can bend
or stretch in relation to its original length. Elongation
is calculated as the percentage difference between
the yield point and the tensile strength.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete Part A
•
4. Bituminous Materials •
Introduction
Portland Cement
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works • Admixtures
6. Timber • Aggregates for Concrete
•
7. Glass Testing for Aggregates /
Cement
3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Introduction
Concrete is a ubiquitous material and its versatility
and ready availability have ensured that it has been
and will continue to be of great and increasing
importance for all types of construction throughout
the world.
It can be found above ground, in housing, industrial
and commercial buildings, bridges etc., on the
ground in roads, airport runways etc., under the
ground in foundations, tunnels, drainage systems,
sewers etc.,and in water in river and harbour works
and offshore structures.
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine
aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel or
crushed rocks) in which the cement and water have
hardened by a chemical reaction – hydration – to
bind the nearly (non-reacting) aggregate.
Cement is the essential component of concrete
which, when hydrated, binds the aggregates
together to form the hard, strong and monolithic
whole that is so useful. Well over 95% of the cement
used in concrete throughout the world is Portland
cement in its various forms. It is by no means a
simple material, and its complexities have an impact
on the properties and behaviour of concrete from
mixing right through to the end of its life.

3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Types of Cement
Many types of cements are produced for different
purposes. Some of them are listed below:
1.Rapid hardening cement- Attains high strength in
7days,3days or even 1day.
2.Quick setting concrete- Used primarily in situations
where the work needs to be completed in a very
short period of time(e.g. concreting under water).
3.Low heat cement- Used for massive constructions.
4.Blast furnace slag cement- Used as a cheaper
alternative.
5.Pozzolanic cement- ideal for concreting of marine
structures and other concreting works under water.
Admixtures are chemicals that are added to concrete
during mixing and significantly change its fresh, early age
or hardened state to economic or physical advantage. They
are usually defined as being added at rates of less than 5%
by weight of the cement, but the typical range for most
types is only 0.3–1.5%. They are normally supplied as
aqueous solutions of the chemical for convenience of
dispensing and dispersion through the concrete during
mixing.
Types of Admixtures
1. Plasticizers, also called workability aids, increase
the fluidity or workability of a cement paste or concrete.
They are long-chain polymers, the main types being
based on either lignosulphonates, which are derived in
the processing of wood for paper pulp, or
polycarboxylate ether. They are relatively inexpensive
but lignosulphonates in particular can contain significant
levels of impurities depending on the amount of
processing.
 4. Retarders- delay the setting time of a mix, and
3. CONCRETE (PART A) examples of their use include:
• counteracting the accelerating effect of hot weather,
Types of Admixtures
particularly if the concrete has to be transported over a
long distance
2. Superplasticizers - As the name implies
• controlling the set in large pours, where concreting may
superplasticizers are more powerful than plasticizers
take several hours, to achieve concurrent setting of all the
and they are used to achieve increases in fluidity and
concrete, hence avoiding cold joints and discontinuities,
workability of a much greater magnitude than those
and achieving uniform strength development.
obtainable with plasticizers. They are also known as
high-range water-reducers.
5. Air-entraining agents- are organic materials which,
when added to the mix water, entrain a controlled quantity
3. Accelerators- An accelerator is used to increase
of air in the form of microscopic bubbles in the cement
the rate of hardening of the cement paste, thus
paste component of the concrete. The bubble diameters
enhancing the early strength, particularly in the
are generally in the range 0.02–1 mm, with an average
period of 24–48 hours after placing, perhaps thereby
distance between them of about 0.2 mm. They are
allowing early removal of formwork, or reducing the
sufficiently stable to be unchanged during the placing,
curing time for concrete placed in cold weather. They
compaction, setting and hardening of the concrete.
may also reduce the setting time.

3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Aggregates
For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard,
strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay
and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of
concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of
the total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct
categories: fine and coarse aggregates.
Fine aggregate is defined as material that will pass a No. 4
sieve and will, for the most part, be retained on a No. 200
sieve. For increased workability and for economy as reflected
by use of less cement, fine aggregate should have a rounded
shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in
the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.
Coarse aggregate is a material that will pass the
3inch screen and will be retained on the No. 4
sieve. As with the fine aggregate, for increased
workability and economy as reflected by the use
of less cement the coarse aggregate should have
a rounded shape. Even though the definition
seems to limit the size of coarse aggregate,
other considerations must be accounted for.
There are three general types or groups of
aggregate depending on their source:
• primary, which are specifically produced for
use in concrete.
• secondary, which are by-products of other
industrial processes not previously used in
construction.
• recycled, from previously used construction
materials e.g. from demolition.

3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Testing for aggregates/cement
1.CRUSHING TEST used to determine the crushing
strength of aggregates. The aggregate crushing
value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under gradually applied crushing load.
2.ABRASION TEST is carried out to test the hardness
property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction
works.
3.IMPACT TEST The aggregate impact test is carried
out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and
retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel
cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is
attached to a metal base of impact testing machine.
4.SOUNDNESS TEST is intended to study the resistance of
aggregates to weathering action, by conducting accelerated
weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to
freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely.
5.SHAPE TEST The particle shape of the aggregate mass is
determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are
detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes.
6.SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are
important properties that are required for the design of
concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid
is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled
water at a specified temperature. 
7.BITUMEN ADHESION TEST
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates
provided they are dry and free from dust. In the absence of
water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction
 3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Fineness test
The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of
hydration, rate of evolution of heat and the rate of gain of
Testing for aggregates/cement
strength. Finer the grains more is the surface area and
faster the development of strength.
The fineness of cement can be determined by Sieve Test
Quality Tests on cement are carried out to check
or Air Permeability test.
the strength and quality of the cement used in
construction. It helps to identify the usage of
Sieve Test: Air-set lumps are broken, and the cement is
cement for different purposes based on its
sieved continuously in a circular and vertical motion for a
durability and performance.
period of 15 minutes. The residue left on the sieve is
weighed, and it should not exceed 10% for ordinary
The following tests are conducted on cement in
cement. This test is rarely used for fineness.
the laboratory are as follows:
Air Permeability Test: is used to find the specific surface,
which is expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g. of
cement. The surface area is more for finer particles.

3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Testing for aggregates/cement
Consistency test
This test is conducted to find the setting times of
cement using a standard consistency test
apparatus, Standard consistency of cement paste
is defined as that water content which will permit
a Vicat plunger of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm
length to penetrate depths of 33-35 mm within 3-5
minutes of mixing.
Tensile Strength of Cement
This test is carried out using a cement-mortar
briquette in a tensile testing machine. A 1:3 cement-
sand mortar with the water content of 8% is mixed
and moulded into a briquette in the mould.
Strength test of cement
The strength of cement cannot be defined directly on the
cement. Instead the strength of cement is indirectly
defined on cement-mortar of 1:3. The compressive
strength of this mortar is the strength of cement at a
specific period.
Soundness test of cement
This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus to detect
the presence of uncombined lime and magnesia in cement
Heat of Hydration Test
During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to
chemical reactions. This heat may raise the temperature
of concrete to a high temperature of 50°C. To avoid these,
in large scale constructions low-heat cement has to be
used.
 3. CONCRETE (PART A)
Testing for aggregates/cement
Field Tests of Cement
The following tests should undergo before mixing
the cement at construction sites:
Presence of Lumps
The cement should not contain any hard lumps.
These lumps are formed by the absorption of
moisture content from the atmosphere. The
cement bags with lumps should be avoided in
construction.
Cement Adulteration Test
The cement should be smooth if you rubbed it between
fingers. If not, then it is because of adulteration with
sand.
Float Test
The particles of cement should flow freely in water for
sometime before it sinks.
Color Test of Cement
The color of the cement should not be uneven. It should
be a uniform grey color with a light greenish shade.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete Part B
4. Bituminous Materials • Properties of fresh
concrete
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works • Production of Concrete
6. Timber • Strength and Failure of
7. Glass Concrete
• Concrete Mix Design
• Concrete Testing and
Equipment
3. CONCRETE (PART B)
Properties of fresh concrete
Civil engineers are responsible for the production,
transport, placing, compacting and curing of fresh
concrete. Without adequate attention to all of these
the potential hardened properties of the concrete,
such as strength and durability, will not be achieved
in the finished structural element.
It is important to recognize that it is not sufficient
simply to ensure that the concrete is mixed and
placed correctly; the behavior and treatment of the
concrete during the period before setting, typically
some six to ten hours after casting, and during the
first few days of hardening have a significant effect on
its long-term performance.
The main properties of interest can be grouped as
follows:
1. Fluidity- The concrete must be capable of being
handled and of flowing into the formwork and around
any reinforcement, with the assistance of whatever
equipment is available. For example, concrete for a
lightly reinforced shallow floor slab need not be as fluid
as that for a tall narrow column with congested
reinforcement.
2. Compactability- All, or nearly all, of the air entrapped
during mixing and handling should be capable of being
removed by the compacting system being used, such as
poker vibrators.
3. Stability or cohesiveness- The concrete should
remain as a homogeneous uniform mass throughout.
For example, the mortar should not be so fluid that it
flows out of or segregates from the coarse aggregate.
3. CONCRETE (PART B)
Production of concrete
Concrete production is the process of mixing
together the various ingredients—water, aggregate,
cement, and any additives—to produce concrete.
Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the
ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete
in place before it hardens.
Mixing of concrete
Mixing concrete is simply defined as the "complete
blending of the materials which are required for the
production of a homogeneous concrete". This can vary
from hand to machine mixing, with machine mixing
being the most common.
However, no successful mixture can be achieved without
the proper batching of all materials.
Batching is the "process of weighing or volumetrically
measuring and introducing into the mixer the
ingredients for a batch of concrete". Quality assurance,
suitable arrangement of materials and equipment, and
correct weighing of the materials are the essential steps
that must be completed before any mixing takes place.
Methods for Mixing Concrete
When it comes to mixing concrete, following three mixing
methods are used for the production of effective and good
quality concrete.
1. Hand Mixing of Concrete (Mixing concrete manually
without a mixer machine)
2. Machine Mixing of Concrete (Mixing concrete with a
mixer machine)
3. Ready Mix Concrete (Mixing in automatic or semi-
automatic batching plant)
3. CONCRETE (PART B)
Despite its durability, concrete can be damaged and
degraded by a long list of factors. To name just a few…
Strength and Failure of Concrete  Insufficient reinforcement
 Chloride attack
Strength is probably the most important single  Chemical damage
property of concrete, since the first consideration in  Carbonation
structural design is that the structural elements must  Weather exposure
be capable of carrying the imposed loads.  Impact damage
 Excessive loads
The maximum value of stress in a loading test is  Fire damage
usually taken as the strength, even though under  Seismic damage
compressive loading the test piece is still whole (but  Blast damage
with substantial internal cracking) at this stress, and
complete breakdown subsequently occurs at higher One of the main causes for concern is corrosion of the
strains and lower stresses. steel within the concrete. This is such a big problem
because rust can easily occupy ten times the volume of
steel, which creates significant tensile stresses and leads
to cracking, staining and spalling.
3. CONCRETE (PART B)
A shear slump invalidates the test, and may indicate a
mix prone to segregation owing to lack of cement or
paste. A collapsed slump is not ideal, but the trend
Concrete Mixed Design mentioned above of the increasing use of high-
consistence mixes, which produce collapsed slumps
Mix design is the process of selecting the proportions with little or no segregation, means that slump values
of cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates and, if up to, and even above, 250 mm are considered valid
they are to be used, additions and admixtures to in many standards. For such very high consistence
produce an economical concrete mix with the mixes an alternative is to measure the final diameter
required fresh and hardened properties. It is often, or ‘flow’ of the concrete, which is more sensitive to
perhaps justifiably, referred to as ‘mix proportioning’ changes in the mix than the change in heigh.
rather than ‘mix design’.
Concrete Testing and Equipment
1. Slump Test
The simplest, and crudest, is the slump test. The
concrete is placed in the frustum of a steel cone and
hand compacted in three successive layers. The cone is
lifted off, and slump is defined as the downward
movement of the concrete. A true slump, in which the
concrete retains the overall shape of the cone and does
not collapse, is preferred, which gives a limit to the
slump measurement of about 180 mm.
3. CONCRETE (PART B)
Concrete Testing and Equipment
2. Compressive Test of Concrete
This is the most common and well-accepted
measurement of concrete strength to assess the
performance of a given concrete mixture. It measures
the ability of concrete to withstand loads that will
decrease the size of the concrete.
Compressive strength is tested by breaking cylindrical
concrete specimens in a special machine designed to
measure this type of strength. It is measured in pounds
per square inch (psi). Testing is done according to the
 ASTM (American Society for Testing & Materials)
standard C39.
Compressive strength is important as it is the main
criteria used to determine whether a given concrete
mixture will meet the needs of a specific job.
Compressive strength is usually tested at seven days
and then again at 28 days to determine the psi. The
seven-day test is done to determine early strength
gains, and in some cases, it may even be performed as
early as three days.
But the concrete psi is based on the results from the
28-day test as noted in the
 American Concrete Institute (ACI) standards.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING
TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete Part C
4. Bituminous Materials • Special Aggregates
• Sprayed Concrete
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works • High Strength Concrete
6. Timber • Underwater Concrete
7. Glass • Foamed Concrete
• Aerated Concrete
• Self-Compacting Concrete
3. CONCRETE (PART C)
Special Concrete
1. Lightweight Aggregates
The lightweight aggregate is a kind of coarse aggregate
which is used in the production of lightweight concrete
products like concrete block, structural concrete, and
pavement.
The shape of the lightweight aggregate used in concrete
can be cubical, rounded, angular, or of any other shape.
The shape and texture can directly affect its workability.
The compressive strength level which is required by the
construction industry to design strengths of cast-in-
place, precast or prestressed concrete is known to be
3000-5000 psi.
2. Sprayed concrete is the method by which
concrete is sprayed into place, rather than the more
conventionally used pouring or placing into formwork
. 
There are many applications and uses for sprayed
concrete. These include curved structures (including
shell roofs and domes and tunnel linings) and free-
formed structures (such as swimaming pools and
climbing walls). Applications also include
underground construction, retaining walls and piled
wall facings. Sprayed concrete is also commonly used
to provide fire protection to steelwork and for
strengthening and repair works to existing structures
3. CONCRETE (PART C)
Special Concrete
3. High Strength Concrete
High-strength concrete is required in engineering
projects that have concrete components that must resist
high compressive loads. High-strength concrete is
typically used in the erection of high-rise structures. It
has been used in components such as columns
(especially on lower floors where the loads will be
greatest), shear walls, and foundations. High strengths
are also occasionally used in bridge applications as well.
4. Foamed Concrete
Foam concrete is a vast majority of concrete
containing no large aggregates, only fine sand and
with extremely lightweight materials containing
cement, water and foam. It can be considered
relatively homogeneous when compared to normal
concrete, as it does not contain coarse aggregate
phase. However, the properties of foamed concrete
depend on the microstructure and composition,
which are influenced by the type of binder used,
methods of pre-foamation and curing The main
advantage of foam concrete is its lightweight, which
ensures economy of walls of the lower floors and
foundations. It has several advantages and since it is
porous in nature, it provides thermal insulation and
considerable savings in the material.
.
3. CONCRETE (PART C)
Special Concrete

5. Aerated Concrete 6. Self Compacting Concrete

Aerated concrete is made by introducing air or gas into a
slurry composed of Portland cement or lime and finely
crushed siliceous filler so that when the mix sets and
hardens, a uniformly cellular structure is formed.
Though it is called aerated concrete it is really not a
concrete in the correct sense of the word. As described
above, it is a mixture of water, cement and finely
crushed sand. Aerated concrete is also referred to as gas
concrete, foam concrete, cellular concrete.
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a special type of
concrete which can be placed and consolidated under
its own weight without any vibration effort due to its
excellent deformability, and which at the same time is
cohesive enough to be handled without segregation
or bleeding.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete • Introduction
4. Bituminous Materials • Components of Bituminous
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works Materials
• Strength & Failure of
6. Timber Bituminous Materials
7. Glass • Production of Bituminous
Materials
• Materials Testing and
Equipment
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Introduction
The term ‘bituminous materials’ is generally taken to
include all materials consisting of aggregate bound
with either bitumen (or previously) tar. Materials of
this kind are used almost exclusively in road
construction. However, bitumen is also used for
industrial applications and other forms of
construction, for example in roofing materials, paints,
carpet tiles and as a protective/waterproof coating.
 
: : A very wide range of bituminous mixtures have
been developed to suit the wide variety of
circumstances in which they are used.
They vary according to their bitumen content and
grade as well as their aggregate grading and size.
Bituminous mixtures have traditionally been
classified in the UK into two groups, namely ‘hot
rolled asphalts’ and ‘coated macadams’ or more
simply ‘asphalts’ and ‘macadams’.
Figure IV.1 illustrates the fundamentally different
characteristics of asphalts and macadams. Asphalts
rely on their dense, stiff mortar for strength and
stiffness, whereas macadams rely on the stability of
the aggregate through its grading. Thus the role of
bitumen is quite different in each case, and the
properties of asphalts are more strongly dependent
on the nature of the bitumen than the properties of
macadams
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS Components of Bituminous Materials

Bituminous materials consist of a graded aggregate bound

together with bitumen. In addition, the mixture contains a
small proportion of air. Thus bituminous materials are
three-phase materials and their properties depend upon
the properties of the individual phases as well as the
mixture proportions.

The two solid phases are quite different in nature. While

the aggregate is stiff and hard, the bitumen is flexible and
soft and is particularly susceptible to temperature change.
Therefore the proportion of bitumen in the asphalt mixture
has a great influence on the mixture’s properties and is
crucial in determining the performance of the material.
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Sources
There are two sources of bitumen: natural
deposits and refinery bitumen. Natural
asphalts Bitumen occurs naturally, formed
from petroleum by geological forces, and
always in intimate association with mineral
aggregate. Types of deposit range from
almost pure bitumen to bitumen-
impregnated rocks and bituminous sands
with only a few per cent bitumen.
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS Structural deterioration (failure) develops gradually with the
continued application of wheel loads. In the early stages, the
Strength & Failure of Bituminous Materials
rate of deterioration is very small and the structural changes
are not perceptible and are difficult to measure. But with
Modes of failure in a bituminous structure
continued service, signs of structural change become clearer
Roads deteriorate in a number of ways, but
and the rate of deterioration accelerates.
broadly there are two forms of failure –
functional and structural.
In most civil engineering structures, structural failure
renders the structure unusable and is often associated with
Functional failure (distress) is usually associated
collapse. However, while roads may become less
with the road surface through deterioration
comfortable to drive on and less safe, they do not, except in
with time. This may be through breakdown of
very extreme cases, become unusable. Therefore failure for
the surface material, for example through
roads must be identified in terms of serviceability and/or
fretting or stone loss (ravelling), or alternatively,
repairability; that is, the extent of cracking and deformation
the surface texture of the surface course may be
which is just acceptable to drivers and/or which represents a
reduced, through polishing or abrasion, so that
condition that may be economically restored by repair, must
the skidding resistance drops below an
be defined.
acceptable level.
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Production of Bituminous Materials There are actually two basic ingredients in asphalt. The first
Bitumen is composed of complex  are aggregates; this is a mix of crushed stone, gravel, and
hydrocarbons and contains elements such as sand. Aggregates make up about 95% of hot mix asphalt
calcium, iron, sulfur, and oxygen. The quality pavement.
of material and ease of production
depends on the source and type of crude oil it The other 5% is bitumen. Bitumen is the black or dark
is derived from. viscous material that holds the aggregates together, and is
composed of polycyclic hydrocarbons
Asphalt is a composite material made up of
mineral aggregates and bitumen commonly
used for roads, parking lots and airports.
Asphalt is also known as blacktop.
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Penetration test Ductility test Softening point test Viscosity test
is the property of bitumen denotes the denotes the fluid property of
It measures the bituminous material and it is a
that permits it to undergo temperature at which
hardness or softness measure of resistance to flow.
great deformation or the bitumen attains a
of bitumen by At the application temperature,
elongation. Ductility is particular degree of
measuring the depth this characteristic greatly
defined as the distance in softening under the
in tenths of a influences the strength of
cm, to which a standard specifications of test.
millimeter to which a resulting paving mixes. Low or
sample or briquette of the The test is conducted
standard loaded high viscosity during
material will be elongated by using Ring and Ball
needle will penetrate compaction or mixing has been
without breaking. apparatus.
vertically in 5 observed to result in lower
seconds. stability values.
4. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Specific gravity test
In paving jobs, to classify a
binder, density property is
of great use. In most cases
bitumen is weighed, but
when used with
aggregates, the bitumen is
converted to volume using
density values. The density
of bitumen is greatly
influenced by its chemical
composition. Increase in
aromatic type mineral
impurities cause an
increase in specific gravity.
Water content test
It is desirable that the
bitumen contains minimum Flash and fire point
Float test test
water content to prevent
Normally the consistency At high temperatures
foaming of the bitumen
of bituminous material depending upon the
when it is heated above the
can be measured either grades of bitumen
boiling point of water. The
by penetration test or materials leave out
water in a bitumen is
viscosity test. But for volatiles. And these
determined by mixing
certain range of volatiles catches fire
known weight of specimen
consistencies, these tests which is very
in a pure petroleum
are not applicable and hazardous and
distillate free from water,
Float test is used. The therefore it is
heating and distilling of the
apparatus consists of an essential to qualify
water. The weight of the
aluminum float and a this temperature for
water condensed and
brass collar filled with each bitumen grade.
collected is expressed as
bitumen to be tested.
percentage by weight of the
original sample.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete • Introduction
4. Bituminous Materials • Material Components for
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works Masonry
• Masonry Construction and
6. Timber forms
7. Glass • Structural Properties of
Masonry
• Testing for Masonry Material
5. MASONRY/ BRICKS/ STONE WORK
Introduction
the term ‘masonry’ has been widened from its
traditional meaning of structures built of natural
stone to encompass all structures produced by
stacking, piling or bonding together discrete
chunks of rock, fired clay, concrete, etc. to form
the whole.
Second to wood, masonry is probably the oldest
building material used by man; it certainly dates
from the ancient civilizations of the Middle East
and was used widely by the Greeks and Romans.
Early cultures used mud building bricks, and very
little of their work has survived, but stone
structures such as the Egyptian pyramids, Greek
temples and many structures made from fired clay
bricks have survived for thousands of years.
Mortar: a material that is plastic and can flow when fresh
but sets hard over a period of hours to days. Its purpose is
to fill the gaps caused by variations in the size and shape of
units such that the masonry is stable and resists the flow of
air and water. Mortar is compounded from a binder (e.g.
cement) and a filler/aggregate (usually sand).
Binder: a finely ground material which when mixed with
water reacts chemically and then sets hard and binds
aggregates into solid masses to form either units or
mortars. Non-hydraulic binders such as resins are
occasionally used.
5. MASONRY/ BRICKS/ STONE WORK
Materials Components for Masonry
Basic terminology Units: brick or block-sized pieces of
stone, fired clay, concrete or calcium silicate bonded
aggregate that are assembled to make masonry. Usually,
but not invariably, these are in the form of rectangular
prisms, but many special shapes are manufactured and
stones are often used either as found or shaped to be
partly squared, faced or split faced. Manufactured units
are produced in the following standard forms: solid,
frogged, cellular, perforated, hollow, key-faced, fair-faced
and split faced, as illustrated in Fig. 33.1
5. MASONRY/ BRICKS/ STONE WORK
Masonry Construction and Forms
The basic structural form of many types of
masonry is expressed on the surface of buildings
and other structures and can be a very attractive
and reassuring aspect of these.
Appearance is a synthesis of the size, shape and
colour of the units, the bond pattern, the mortar
colour and finish, the masonry elements – walls,
piers, columns, corbels, arches, etc. – and the
scale and proportion of the whole structure.
Other key aspects are the workmanship, accuracy,
the detailing in relation to other features and the
use of specially shaped units.
Structural Properties of Masonry
Like any structural material, masonry must resist loads or
forces due to a variety of external influences (or actions)
and in various planes.
 
Like plain concrete, unreinforced masonry is good at
resisting compression forces, moderate to bad at
resisting shear and bending but very poor when
subjected to direct tension. Masonry structures that are
required to resist significant tensile forces should be
reinforced by adding steel or other tension components.
Unlike concrete, however, masonry is highly anisotropic
because of its layer structure and this must always be
borne in mind in design.
5. MASONRY/ BRICKS/ STONE WORK
Testing for Masonry Material

Grout and Mortar Testing - Testing includes compressive strength of

masonry prisms, grout prisms, and mortar cylinders.

CMU Testing - CMU blocks are sampled and tested for moisture
content, absorption, and compressive strength.

Brick Sheer Testing - Testing of masonry in shear is performed in

accordance with the Uniform Code for Building Conservation.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete
4. Bituminous Materials
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works • Introduction
• Composition of Timber
6. Timber
• Structure, Strength and Failure
7. Glass of Timber
• Durability of Timber
• Timber in Constructions
• Testing for timber Materials
6. TIMBER
Introduction
In the industrial era of the 19th century timber
was used widely for the construction not only of
roofs but also of furniture, waterwheels,
gearwheels, rails of early pit railways, sleepers,
signal poles, bobbins and boats. The 20th century
saw an extension of its use in certain areas and a
decline in others, owing to its replacement by
newer materials. Despite competition from
lightweight metals and plastics, whether foamed
or reinforced, timber continues to be used on a
massive scale.
On a volume basis, annual consumption continues to
increase slightly and there is no reason to doubt that this
trend will be maintained in the future, especially with
the demand for more houses, the increasing price of
plastics, the favourable strength:weight and
strength:cost ratios of timber and panel products, and
the increased emphasis on environmental performance
and sustainability, in which timber is the only renewable
construction material.
Nevertheless, man has found timber to be a cheap and
effective material and, as we have seen, continues to use
it in vast quantities.
6. TIMBER
Composition of Timber

The trunk of a tree has three physical functions to perform: firstly,

it must support the crown, a region responsible for the production
not only of food, but also of seed; secondly, it must conduct the
mineral solutions absorbed by the roots upwards to the crown;
and thirdly it must store manufactured food (carbohydrates) until
required.

Whereas the entire cross-section of the trunk fulfils the function of

support, and increasing crown diameter is matched with increasing
diameter of the trunk, conduction and storage are restricted to the
outer region of the trunk. This zone is known as sapwood, while
the region in which the cells no longer fulfil these tasks is termed
the heartwood. The width of sapwood varies widely with species,
rate of growth and age of the tree.
6. TIMBER
Structure, Strength and Failure of Timber
Strength
Best quality timbers have the highest strength. Strength
means capable to bear loads. Anisotropic material like
timber has different structure at the different portion.
So, the strength of timber is different at different
points. Grain structure determines the strength of the
timber.
Toughness
Timber has to have the capability to bear shocks, jerk.
Anti-bending and ant splitting characteristic is needed.
Old timbers have annual rings which indicate their age
is a good indicator.
Moisture Content
Timbers are hygroscopic and gain water from nature
(atmosphere). The absorption of water or
dehydration depends on atmospheric humidity. If
timbers moisture content is high that means the
timber quality is low. Water content is the risk of
fungal attack.
Shrinkage and Swelling
The percentage of shrinkage and swelling varies from
plant to plant. Some give higher percentage after
drying. Shrinkage starts when cell walls of timber
start to release water. In moisture atmosphere
timber swells when cell walls absorb water. Good
quality timbers swell less. Timbers having thicker wall
swell more than a thinner one.
6. TIMBER
Density
Timber having higher density have a thicker wall. An
important property that quality of timber. Moisture
content: Presence of defects: There may be some of
the natural and artificial defects in timber such as cross-
grain, knots, and shakes, etc. All of them cause a
decrease in the strength of the timber.
Durability of Timber
Durability is a term that has different connotations for
different people; it is defined here in the broadest
possible sense to embrace the resistance of timber to
attack from a whole series of agencies whether
physical, chemical or biological in origin.
By far the most important are the biological
agencies, fungi and insects, both of which can
cause tremendous havoc given the right
conditions.
In the absence of fire, fungal or insect attack,
timber is really remarkably resistant, and timber
structures will survive, indeed have survived,
incredibly long periods of time, especially when
it is appreciated that it is a natural organic
material with which we are dealing.
  
6. TIMBER Timber is one of the most useful and important
material for constructions. Selecting timber is not an
Production of Timber
easy task, because timber has different types out of
which selecting the right material is an important key.
Trees are cut down in the forest and then transported
by truck to a timber saw mill where the trees are
Timber is an expensive material to be incorporated in a
debarked (bark stripped off) and cut up into smaller
building for different purpose therefore it should
pieces. Sometimes this is all done in the forest or
necessarily be strong, tough and durable. Timber doors
plantation.
or windows and etc. contribute a lot in the
beautification and overall look of interiors.
Timber in Construction
Timber is used in doors, windows, cabinet, cupboards,
Timber is a great insulating material. This means it
shelves, tables and railings etc. Timber is also popularly
helps to maintain a more constant temperature.
used in the form of plywood & raw wood. Products like
Compared to materials like masonry, concrete, or
ply blocks and ply boards. Heavy patterned doors and
steel, timber will help reduce heating and associated
windows are made of solid wood/Timber to provide
energy requirements
the strength, toughness and durability.
6. TIMBER
Wood and timber material undergo simple tension, compression and flexural testing to determine their
suitability for a specific application.

Tensile testing a wood material is placed into a universal testing machine and loaded in a manner that pulls the
sample apart resulting in the sample failing in tension.
Compression testing of wood materials is the opposite of tensile testing in that instead of pulling the ends
away from each the ends are pushed together. There are two different forms of compression testing: with grain
and perpendicular to grain, each of which reveal a different set of characteristics about the tested material.
Grain compression testing requires the load to be applied along the grains of the test sample, whereas,
perpendicular to grain compression testing requires the load to be applied perpendicularly to the grain of the
wood sample.
Flexure testing requires the load to be applied perpendicularly to the grain at the midpoint of the sample while
it is supported underneath at two points causing the sample to essentially bend in half. Tests can be performed
statically or dynamically on wood products.
 I. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING TOPICS

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Metals & Alloys in Construction
3. Concrete
• Introduction
4. Bituminous Materials • Type of Glass
5. Masonry / Bricks / Stone Works • Properties and Performance of
6. Timber Glass
• Manufacture and Processing of
7. Glass Glass
• Design and Application of Glass
in construction
• Applicable Testing for Glass
7. GLASS
Introduction
Glass is a prominent material in modern
construction but it is still commonly misunderstood.
On one hand it is very simple, being mostly of a
single composition, but on the other hand the
complexity of multiple processing stages, the
variability of its strength and the unforgiving nature
of its brittleness make it a challenge to select the
most appropriate type for a particular application
and to detail its interfaces with other materials.
When glass is used structurally a number of
functions are integrated into the glass elements.
This requires the simultaneous solution of, for
example, strength, robustness, vision, heat and light
requirements.
Load and impact tests are often performed before
breaking the glass but it is not until the glass has
been broken that a real understanding of the safety
and robustness of glass can be gathered.
7. GLASS
Types of Glass
Float glass is made using a ‘floating
technique’ to create a uniform
thickness and superior even
appearance. By floating glass on
molten metal to create this level finish,
float glass is perfectly created for large
window panes, double glazing and
other applications with further
processing. This type of glass is
commonly used in multi-story office
developments as it gives a modern and
stylish look in comparison to if opaque
building materials were more
dominant.
Toughened glass is created using a specific cooling technique to
create counteracting stresses, meaning that the glass will
shatter in the event of trauma, rather than crack or break into
shards, to make it safe and less likely to cause injury. This makes
it perfect for a variety of applications such as glass doors,
tables, exterior glass barriers, shelves etc
Painted glass is usually carried out for aesthetic reasons,
whether for decoration or for privacy. Painted glass can be used
for a number of applications, including a feature wall, as a table
surface, as a kitchen splashback, for shelving, along corridor
walls and large doors, as well as many others. Painted glass is
stylish and simple yet hugely effective in improving the design
and outlook of interiors. We offer the popular Lacobel range of
painted glass which can be tailored to suit individual design
requirements.
7. GLASS Solar control glass to a home or
commercial building can be a great
Laminate glass is designed
to remain intact in the
way to improve energy efficiency event of impact or trauma
Patterned glass can come in a
by minimizing the need for air to the surface, making it
variety of forms, such as
conditioning or heating and ideal for a range of safety
sandblasted glass, but is usually
therefore reducing energy bills. installations such as
created through the application of
This glass is designed to work with bulletproof glass, burglar-
irregular heat across the surface to
the weather outside, so that it proof shop fronts and
generate an even pattern. The
keeps heat out during periods of balustrades. It made using
purpose of glass is often for
hot weather, but keeps heat inside multiple layers to reinforce
privacy in bathroom windows and
during colder weather. This means the structure and to ensure
doors, but can also be used for
that more natural light can be that any cracked or
decorative installations. The
allowed into a building using disjointed pieces will stay
benefit of patterned glass for
skylights, conservatory structures in place should any
many applications is that it can be
and french windows without damage occur.
both practical in providing a
compromising energy efficiency or
barrier but also aesthetically
increasing the need for climate
pleasing.
control.
7. GLASS Insulation
It is an excellent insulator against heat, electricity and
Properties and Performance of Glass
electromagnetic radiation because of its good insulating
response against visible light transmission.
Hardness and Brittleness
It is a hard material as it has great impact
Chemical Resistance
resistance against applied load. However, at
It can withstand the effect of the chemical reaction under
the same time, it is a brittle material as its
different environment conditions or acidic effects.
breaks immediately when subjected to load.
Color and Shape Varieties
Weather Resistance
It can be blown, drawn and pressed to any color, shape, and
It is weather resistant as it can withstand the
variety and is available in the market depending upon their
backlash of rain, sun and wind. It can absorb,
use, dimensional requirements, and safety requirement.
reflect and refract light as it enables us to
control and manipulate natural light to
influence our daily activities and regulate our
mental and physical health.
7. GLASS
Transparency
The transparency is one such property of
glass which creates a visual connect with
the outside world. With the advent of
technology, clear glass can also be altered,
making it opaque.
Fire Resistant Glazing
The transparent glazing is protective by
becoming opaque if it is subjected to above
120°C. This is achieved with the help of special
transparent gels. (Published in Introduction on
use of glass in modern buildings).
Manufacture and Processing of Glass
Manufacturing of flat glass Flat glass manufacturing is
a key industrial process and has been subject to
continuous development to achieve lower cost and
higher quality since its transition from the craft of
mouth-blown glass. Float glass is the dominant
process for flat glass, while rolled plate remains in use
for patterned (textured) glass and wired glass.
• Batching of raw materials
• Melting of raw materials in the furnace
• Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath
• Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr
• Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage
7. GLASS
Design and Application of Glass in Construction
 
Glass is used in various methods during construction projects with an exact form and type. The most
familiar glass forms are fiberglass products that are being used for insulation and translucent panels,
transparent blocks, and windows

Glass is used for its partial transparency, to connect a place with another without the barriers of a wall, also
it is commonly used to let light pass through a place, so a specific place will be lighter, so the colors and the
design will show, so the use of artificial electric energy is used less during the day, and the sunlight, or
moonlight carries into the space

Glass allows light in and prevents air and water so buildings can be naturally lit, and have views to the
outside but still provide shelter. Glass however does not usually shelter from heat or cold.
7. GLASS
Applicable Testing for Glass Testing services for all kinds of glass include testing on:
• Durability
Glass is a popular material in a number of industries, • Mechanical Strength
such as the construction sector, due to its versatility, • Breakage behavior
strength, and availability. New technological • Temperature changing
developments have further enhanced the features of • Radiation
glass, making it hardwearing, heat resistant or even • Humidity
bullet proof. • Luminous and solar characteristics
• Chemical reaction
With the introduction of complex multi-material • Water tightness
products with glass components, new regulations and • Air permeability
standards to ensure quality and safety have been • Resistance against wind load
developed. • Burglar resistance

Manufacturers therefore need to ensure compliance

with all applicable standards.
7. GLASS
For safety glass, especially toughened glass or Testing services for all kinds of glass include testing on:
laminated glass, additional services that include: • Durability
• Mechanical Strength
• Quality assurance audits to assure production • Breakage behavior
proceeds according to the required national and • Temperature changing
international standards. • Radiation
• Test to ensure strength, durability and resistance • Humidity
against impacts. • Luminous and solar characteristics
• Chemical reaction
• Water tightness
• Air permeability
• Resistance against wind load
• Burglar resistance
II. RESEARCH & PRESENTATION FORMAT
1. RESEARCH PRESENTATION OF ASSIGNED TOPIC
A. WRITTEN REPORT – BY GROUP
i. MAIN TOPIC
ii. SUB TOPIC 1
iii. SUB TOPIC 2
B. VIDEO PRESENTATION/PICTURE
i. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ii. TESTING OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
iii. APPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
iv. DISCUSSION OF ASSIGNED TOPIC
2. SUBMISSION OF RESEARCH/ PRESENTATION WORKS – POWERPOINT