Vapor Power Cycles

• We’ll look specifically at the Rankine

cycle, which is a vapor power cycle.
• It is the primary electrical producing
cycle in the world.
• The cycle can use a variety of fuels.
 We’ll simplify the power
plant
3
B O IL E R
T U R B IN E w out
q in

2 4

CO NDENSER

q out
1
w in PUM P
 T
compressor
TH < T C
and turbine
1 TH 2 must handle
Carnot Vapor Cycle

two phase
flows!

4 TL 3

s
 The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor
power cycles because it cannot be approximated in
practice.
 Optimization of a Vapor Power Plant
• Objectives: design an optimal vapor power cycle
– use idealized Carnot cycle as the model;
– consider all theoretical and practical limitations and redesign
the cycle accordingly Idealized Rankine cycle;
– optimize the Rankine cycle using concepts of superheating,
reheating and regeneration;
– discussion concerning the increase of the efficiency of an
idealized Rankine cycle.
Carnot cycle 3
2
T T

2 3
(a) OR (b) 1 4

1 4

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Practical Problems associated with Carnot Cycle Plant

• Maximum temperature limitation for cycle (a).

• What is the maximum temperature in the cycle?

• Isentropic expansion in a turbine from 3-4. What is

the quality of the steam inside the turbine? Will high
moisture content affect the operation of the turbine?

• Isentropic compression process in a pump from 1-2.

Can one design a condenser and transmission line
system that precisely control the quality of the vapor
in order to achieve an isentropic compression? Even
we can, is it practical to handle two-phase flow
(liquid + vapor) using such a system?
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 • The latter two problems can be resolved by
the use of cycle (b) from previous slide.
However, the (b) cycle requires the
compression(1-2) of liquid at a very high
pressure (exceeding 22 MPa for a steam,
how do I get this number from?) and that is
not practical. Also, to maintain a constant
temperature above the critical temperature
is also difficult since the pressure will have
to change continuously.

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 How about a modified cycle - A Rankine cycle

• To avoid transporting and compressing two-phase

fluid, we can try to condense all fluid exiting
from the turbine into saturated liquid before
compressed it by a pump.
T

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s
 Ideal power plant cycle is called the
Rankine Cycle
T

3
q in

w out
2

w in 1 q 4
out

s
 The model cycle for vapor power cycles is the Rankine cycle which
is composed of four internally reversible processes:
 1-2 reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression in the pump
 2-3 constant pressure heat addition in the boiler.
 3-4 reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion through turbine
 4-1 constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
 What are the main parameters we want
to describe the cycle?

Net Power W out  W tur  W pump

Net Specific
Work
wout  w tur  w pump

W net w net
Efficiency   or 
Qin qin
 Start our analysis with the pump

Q pump  
W   h 2  h 1  KE  PE
Pump  m

3
The pump is adiabatic,
q in
with no kinetic or
w out potential energy
2

w in 1 q out
4 changes. The work per
unit mass is:
s

w pump  h1  h2   ( P1  P2 )
 Boiler is the next
component

Q boiler  
W   h 3  h 2  KE  PE
boiler  m

3 Boilers do no work. In
q in
boilers, heat is added to the
w working fluid, so the heat
2 out
transfer term is already
w in 1 q 4 positive. So,
out


Q boiler
 q boiler  h 3  h 2
m

 Proceeding to the Turbine

Q turbine  
W   h 4  h 3  KE  PE
turbine  m
Turbines are
T almost always
3
adiabatic. In
q in
addition, we’ll
w
2 out usually ignore
w in 1 q out
4 kinetic and
potential energy
s changes:

W turbine
 w turb  h 3  h 4
m
Last component is the Condenser

Q cond  
W   h 1  h 4  KE  PE
cond  m

T
Condensers do no
q in
3
work (they are heat
w exchangers), and if
out
there is no KE and
2

w in 1 q out
4
PE,
s


Q cond
 q cond  h 1  h 4
m
 Efficiency
wout

qin

h3  h4  v(P2  P1 )
 
h3  h2
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 Start an analysis:
A Rankine cycle has an exhaust pressure from the turbine of 0.1 bars. Determine
the quality of the steam leaving the turbine and the thermal efficiency of the cycle
which has turbine inlet pressure of 150 bars and 600C.

T
Assumptions:
T 3 = 6 0 0 oC
Pump and turbine are 3
P = 1 2 0 b a rs
isentropic; P = 15 MPa
P2 = P3 = 150 bars = 15 MPa
T3 = 600C 2
P4 = P1 = 0.1 bars = 0.01 MPa P = 0 .1 b a r s
P = 0.01 MPa
Kinetic and potential energy 1 4
changes are negligible

s
Put together property data
State T (C) P(MPa) v(m3/kg) h(kJ/kg) s(kJ/kgK) x

1 0.01 0

2 15 n.a.

3 600 15 ----

4 0.01 ----

Pump (1 to 2) -> isoentropic (const. volume)

Boiler [heat exchanger] (2 to 3) -> const. pressure
Turbine (3 to 4) -> isoentropic
Condenser [heat-exchanger] (4 to 1) -> const. pressure
 State T (C) P(MPa) v(m3/kg) h(kJ/kg) s(kJ/kgK) x

1 45.81 0.01 0.00101 191.83 0

Property Data
2 49.42 15 0.00101 206.93 Liq.
comp
3 600 15 0.02491 3582.3 6.6776 Super
aquec
4 45.81 0.01 12.266 2114.9 6.6776 0.8037
T
T 3 = 6 0 0 oC
3
P = P15
= 1 2 0 b a rs
MPa

2
P = 0 .1 b a r s
P = 0.01 MPa
1 4

s
 Let start T
T 3 = 6 0 0 oC

with pump P = P15

= 1 2 0 b a rs
MPa
3

work 2
P = 0 .1 b a r s
P = 0.01 MPa
1 4

s
w pump   (P1  P2 )  h1  h2
m3
w pump  (0.00101) (0.01  15)MPa
kg
kJ
w pump  15.1
kg
More calculations...
Enthalpy at pump outlet:
h2  h1  w pump
Plugging in some numbers:
kJ
h2  (191.83  15.1)
kg
kJ
h2  206.93
kg
 How Can I Get The Pump
Outlet Temp?

If the Enthalpy at pump outlet is 206.93

KJ/kg, then consider the compressed
liquid a the same temperature of the
saturated liquid which has h = 206.93
KJ/kg
Interpolating from the saturated steam
table one finds: 49oC
 T

Calculate P = P15
= 1 2 0 b a rs
MPa
T 3 = 6 0 0 oC
3

heat input 2
P = 0 .1 b a r s
P = 0.01 MPa
1 4

s
kJ
qboiler  h3  h2  ( 3582.3  206.93)
kg
kJ
qboiler  3375.4
kg
 T
Turbine T 3 = 6 0 0 oC

work
3
P = P15
= 1 2 0 b a rs
MPa

2
P = 0 .1 b a r s
P = 0.01 MPa
1 4

s
Isentropic: s4  s3  6.6776 kJ/kg  K
 x 4  0.8037 ; h4  2114 .9 kJ/kg
kJ
Turbine work: w turbine  h 3  h 4  (1467.4)
kg
Overall thermal efficiency
w turbine  w pump

qin
kJ
(1467.4  15.1)
kg
   0.430
kJ
3375.4
kg
Some general characteristics
of the Rankine cycle
• Low condensing pressure (below
atmospheric pressure)
• High vapor temperature entering the
turbine (600 to 1000C)
• Small backwork ratio (bwr)

w pump h1  h2
BWR    0.01
w turb ine h3  h4
Improved Steam Plant
 Questions …
• Consider the ideal Rankine cycle from 1-2-3-4:
w turbine  w pump

T qin
• How would you increase its
thermal efficiency ? 3
q in
• What determines the upper T
limit? w
2 out
• What determines the lower T limit?
w in 1 q 4
out

s
 Improve the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle: decrease exhaust
pressure of turbine
• decreases condensing temperature
• increases work output
• increases heat input
• decreases quality at turbine outlet
 Lowering Turbine Exit Pressure
w turbine  w pump

qin

• The average
temperature during
heat rejection can be
decreased by lowering
the turbine exit
pressure.
• Consequently, the
condenser pressure of
most vapor power
plants is well below the
atmospheric pressure.
 Reducing Condenser Pressure
• Notice that reducing the w net
condenser pressure (which 
q in
will lower the temperature of
heat rejection and again
increase the efficiency) will
also reduce the quality of the
steam exiting the turbine.
• Turbines do not like to see
water coming out the
exhaust.
• Lower qualities mean water
droplets are forming before
the steam leaves the turbine.
• Water droplets lead to
turbine blade erosion.
• Efforts are made to keep the
quality > 90%.
 Raising Boiler
Pressure
• The average temperature during heat
addition can be increased by raising the
boiler pressure or by superheating the fluid
to high temperatures.
• There is a limit to the degree of
superheating, however, since the fluid
temperature is not allowed to exceed a
metallurgically safe value.
 Increase Superheat (Boiler Temperature)
w net
T

q in
Work output
3' increases faster
3 than heat input, so
the cycle efficiency
2 increases.
1 4 4'
higher quality

Increasing Superheat s
* increases heat input
* increases work output
* increases quality at turbine outlet
* may produce material problems
if temperature gets too high
Effect of Increasing Boiler Pressure on the
Ideal Rankine cycle keeping constant the
Boiler Outlet Temperature Tmax
17 Sept 2020

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 Thermal Efficiency
• Thermal efficiency can be improved by
– (a) Lowering the condensing pressure (lower condensing
temperature, lower TL)
– (b) Superheating the steam to higher temperature
– ( c) Increasing the boiler pressure (increase boiler temperature,
increase TH)

(a) lower pressure(temp) (b) Superheating ( c) increase pressure

T 3

T 3
4 T
2

2 1 4
2
1
1 s
s Low quality,
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high moisture content
 Reheating
• The optimal way of increasing the boiler pressure but not increase
the moisture content in the exiting vapor is to reheat the vapor
after it exits from a first-stage turbine and redirect this reheated
vapor into a second turbine.
T high-P 5
3 3
high-P Low-P turbine
low-P
turbine turbine
turbine
boiler
4
4

5 2
6

1
6
2 pump
1
condenser s
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 Simple schematic of
Rankine reheat cycle
q in lo Low
5 P re s s u re
4 T U R B IN E
B O IL E R
w o u th i
w o u t lo
3
H ig h
P re s s u re 6
2 CO NDENSER
T U R B IN E
q in h i q out
1
w in PUM P
The Ideal Reheat
Rankine Cycle
 Reheat on T-s diagram:
T
3
w o u th i
q q 5
Note that T5 < T3. in h i in lo

Many systems 4
reheat to the
same temp
2 w o u tlo

(T5=T3). w 1 6
in q out

s
 Regeneration
• From 2-2’, the temperature at 2 is very low, therefore, the heat
addition process is at a lower temperature and therefore, the
thermal efficiency is lower. Why?
• Use regenerator to heat up the liquid (feedwater) leaving the pump
before sending it to the boiler, therefore, increase the averaged
temperature (efficiency as well) during heat addition in the boiler.
Lower temp higher temp
heat addition 3 heat addition 5
T T Extract steam from
turbine to provide
2’ 4
heat source in the
6
regenerator
2
3
2

4 1 7
1 s
s
Use regenerator to heat up the feedwater
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 Regenerative Cycle
• Improve efficiency by increasing feedwater temperature before it enters
the boiler.
• Open feedwater: Mix steam with the feedwater in a mixing chamber.
• Closed feedwater: No mixing.
Open FWH
5
T 5

boiler 4
6 (y) 6
Open
(y) 7 (1-y)
FWH 2 (1-y)
3

4 3 2
Pump 2 1 7
s
Pump 1
Improved Steam Plant 1 condenser
• Consider the Rankine power cycle as shown.
Steam enters the turbine as 100% saturated
vapor at 6 MPa and saturated liquid enters
the pump at a pressure of 0.01 MPa. If the
net power output of the cycle is 50 MW.
Determine (a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the
mass flow rate of the system, ( c) the rate of
heat transfer into the boiler, (d) the mass
flow rate of the cooling water from the
condenser, in kg/s, if the cooling water enters
at 20°C and exits at 40°C.
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 Qin Example
2 3
boiler Wout Consider the Rankine power cycle as
Turbine shown. Steam enters the turbine as
Win 100% saturated vapor at 6 MPa and
pump
saturated liquid enters the pump at a
condenser pressure of 0.01 MPa. If the net power
1 output of the cycle is 50 MW.
4
Determine (a) the thermal efficiency, (b)
the mass flow rate of the system, ( c) the
Qout rate of heat transfer into the boiler, (d)
the mass flow rate of the cooling water
T
from the condenser, in kg/s, if the
3 cooling water enters at 20°C and exits at
40°C.
2

1 4
s

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 Solution
• At the inlet of turbine, P3=6MPa, 100% saturated vapor x3=1, from saturated
table A-5, h3=hg=2784.3(kJ/kg), s3=sg=5.89(kJ/kg K)

• From 3-4, isentropic expansion: s3=s4=5.89 (kJ/kg K)

• From 4-1, isothermal process, T4=T1=45.8°C (why?)

From table A-5, when T=45.8°C, sf4=0.6491, sfg4=7.5019, hf4=191.8, hfg4=2392.8
x4 = (s4-sf4)/sfg4 = (5.89-0.6491)/7.5019 = 0.699
h4 = hf4+x4* hfg4 = 191.8+0.699(2392.8) = 1864.4 (kJ/kg)

• At the inlet of the pump: saturated liquid h1=hf1=191.8

qout = h4-h1=1672.6(kJ/kg)

• At the outlet of the pump: compressed liquid v2=v1=vf1=0.00101(m3/kg)

work input to pump Win = h2-h1 = v1 (P2-P1) = 0.00101(6000-10) = 6.05
h2 = h1 + v1 (P2-P1) =191.8 + 6.05 = 197.85 (kJ/kg)

In theSteam
• Improved boiler,
Plantqin=h3-h2=2784.3-197.85=2586.5(kJ/kg)
 Solution (cont.)
(a) The thermal efficiency h = 1-qout/qin= 1-1672.6/2586.5=0.353=35.3%

(b) Net work output dW/dt=50MW=(dm/dt)(Wout-Win)=(dm/dt)((h3-h4)-(h2-h1))

mass flow rate (dm/dt)=50000/((2784.3- 1864.4 )-(197.85-191.8))=54.7(kg/s)

( c) heat transfer into the boiler qin = (dm/dt)(h3-h2)=54.7(2586.5)=141.5(MW)

(d) Inside the condenser, the cooling water is being heated from the heat
transfered from the condensing steam.
q cooling water = qout = (dm/dt)(h4-h1) = 54.7(1672.6) = 91.49 (MW)

(dm/dt)cooling water Cp (Tout - Tin) = q cooling water

C p, water = 4.177(kJ/kg K)
(dm/dt)cooling water = 91490/(4.177*(40-20)) = 1095.2 (kg/s)

Very large amount of cooling water is needed 

Improved Steam Plant

 Reheat Rankine Cycle

• Reheating allows one to increase the boiler pressure without

increasing the moisture content in the vapor exiting from the
turbine.
• By reheating, the averaged temperature of the vapor entering the
turbine is increased, thus, it increases the thermal efficiency of
the cycle.
• Multistage reheating is possible but not practical. One major
reason is because the vapor exiting will be superheated vapor at
higher temperature, thus, decrease the thermal efficiency. Why?
• Energy analysis: Heat transfer and work output both change
qin = qprimary + qreheat = (h3-h2) + (h5-h4)
Wout = Wturbine1 + Wturbine2 = (h3-h4) + (h5-h6)

Improved Steam Plant

 Regenerative Cycle
• Assume y percent of steam is extracted from the turbine and is
directed into open feedwater heater.

• Energy analysis:
qin = h5-h4, qout = (1-y)(h7-h1),
Wturbine, out = (h5-h6) + (1-y)(h6-h7)
Wpump, in = (1-y)Wpump1 + Wpump2
= (1-y)(h2-h1) + (h4-h3)
= (1-y)v1(P2-P1) + v3(P4-P3)

• In general, the more feedwater heaters, the better the cycle

efficiency.

Improved Steam Plant

Improved Steam Plant
 Qin Improved Steam Plant
A Vapor Power Cycle
2 3
Boiler Wout

Win Compressor
(pump) Turbine
Heat exchanger
1 4

T
Qout P
2 3 2 3

1 4 1 4

Improved Steam Plant v

• when the saturated vapor enters the turbine, its
temperature and pressure decrease and liquid
droplets will form by condensation. These
droplets can produce significant damages to the
turbine blades due to corrosion and impact. One
possible solution: superheating the vapor. It can
also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Improved Steam Plant

 Ideal Rankine Cycle
• Energy analysis: steady flow process, no generation, neglect KE
and PE changes for all four devices,
• 0 = (net heat transfer in) - (net work out) + (net energy flow in)
• 0 = (qin - qout) - (Wout - Win) + (hin - hout)

T 3 • 1-2: Pump (q=0)

 Wpump = h2 - h1 = v(P2-P1)

2 • 2-3: Boiler (W=0)  qin = h3 - h2

1 4
• 3-4: Turbine (q=0)  Wout = h3 - h4
s

Thermal efficiency h = Wnet • /q4-1: Condenser (W=0)  qout -h = h - h1

in = 1 - qout/qin = 1 - (h4-h1)/(h 3 2)4
Wnet = Wout - Win = (h3-h4) - (h2-h1)
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