Bonding

And
Strucure
I G C S E C O - O R D I N AT E D
SCIENCE
Reference
Textbook: pg 224-241
Noble gases
Noble gases
Key Facts about Noble gases

Non-metal
Monoatomic gases
Unreactive
Helium and Neon is lighter than air.
Glows under high voltage
Uses of the Noble gases
Helium- Balloons and airships
Neon- Neon lighting
Argon- Light bulbs
Krypton- used in lasers for eye surgery and in bulbs
for car headlamps.
Xenon- very bright lamps.
Ions
Atoms can lose or gain electrons to have a full valence shell. Full valence shell is
a stable electronic structure.

Some atoms lose electrons to form positive ions ( )

Some atoms gain electrons to form negative ions ( )

Example 1:
Sodium ion
Na  Na+
Example 2: Oxide ion
O O2-
Monoatomic vs polyatomic ions
Many ions are formed from single atoms losing or gaining
electrons. These are called monoatomic ions.

Some ions are formed from many atoms grouped into

molecules. These are called polyatomic ions.
Examples of monoatomic ions
Na+, Ag+ , Mg2+

Cl-, O2- , N3-

These are of elements found in the periodic table.

How do you name monoatomic
ions?
Metal ions  Keep the same name as when they were an atom
Li+  Lithium ion

Non-metal ions  change their endings to ‘ide’

e.g. F-  fluoride ion
Activity: Name following ions
1. N3-
2. P3-
3. Ag+
4. Pb2+
5. Br-
Example of polyatomic ions

Nitrate : NO3- Carbonate : CO32-

Sulfate : SO42-
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding occurs between a cation and an anion. It makes an ionic
compound

This is because opposite charges attract (electrostatic attraction).

Cations are positive.

Anions are negative.
Example 1: Sodium Chloride
Sodium loses 1 electron and form a cation
Chlorine gains 1 electron and from an anion
Sodium ion is positive and chloride ion is negative therefore they attract each
other (ionic bonding).
Example 2: Sodium Nitrate
Sodium ion is positive and nitrate ion is negative therefore they attract each other
(ionic bonding).
Example 3: Magnesium chloride
Magnesium ion is positive and chloride ion is negative therefore they attract each
other (ionic bonding).
Ionic compounds
Ionic bonding between cations and anions result in an ionic
compound.
Naming ionic compounds
Naming ionic compounds
Cation name Anion name

Example
Sodium Chloride
Ionic compounds and Formulae
Formula is a more convenient way of representing ionic compounds.
Symbols of elements are used to write ionic compound formulae.

Formula also shows the ratio of ions in the structure as well.

e.g MgCl2 tells us that there is 1 Mg2+ for every 2 Cl- ions
Ionic compounds and Formulae
1. Find out which elements make up the ionic compound
2. Determine the charge of ions formed by the elements.
3. Balance the charges (positive and negative) by changing the
numbers of cations or anions (sometimes both)
4. Write cation symbol first and then anion symbol
5. Write the subscript number on the right hand side of the Symbol
to represent the number of these ions .
Example: Write it’s name and ionic
formula
An ionic compound is made up of sodium and fluorine.
Example: Write its name and ionic
formula
An ionic compound is made up of Aluminium and oxygen.
Example: Write its name and ionic
formula
An ionic compound is made up of Sodium and sulfur.
Example: Write its name and ionic
formula
An ionic compound is made up of Magnesium and hydroxide ion.
Example: Write its name and ionic
formula
An ionic compound is made up of Aluminium and sulfate ion.
Practice
1. Magnesium bromide
2. Calcium nitride
3. Aluminium oxide
4. Potassium manganate(VII)
5. Iron (III) Carbonate
Practice
1. AgCl
2. FeBr2
3. Na2S
4. Zn(HCO3)2
5. Cu3(PO4)2
Dot and cross diagrams
Diagram to show movement of electrons
1. Draw the atoms with valence electrons.
2. Show which way electrons move using the arrows.
3. Show the ions formed with square brackets around the atoms with the charge
written outside.
Dot and Cross diagrams
The diagrams to represent losing and gaining of electrons.

You can just show the valence energy levels.

Show the transfer of electrons.
Draw the ions formed.
Practice: draw dot and cross diagrams
of these
1. Lithium chloride
2. Aluminium oxide
3. Strontium iodide
Covalent bonds
Covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared between atoms to have the
stable electron configuration. Two shared electrons between the atoms are
equivalent to one covalent bond.

It usually occurs between non-metals.

Features of the covalent bonds
Number of bonds (Single bond, Double bond and Triple
bond)

Polarity of bonds ( polar vs non-polar bonds) : Extension

Single, double and triple bonds
Single, double and triple bonds

e.g. Hydrogen gas, Oxygen gas and Nitrogen gas

How many bonds per atom?
Number of unpaired valence electrons in the orbital=
number of possible bonds.

Example:
Polarity : Extension
Polarity of the bond is caused by the uneven share of electrons between the atoms.

If one atom has greater electronegativity (pulling of electrons in a bond) than

another, electrons are found more often around the atom with greater
electronegativity.

This produces a dipole. A slightly positive end and a slightly negative end of the
bond.
Examples
Hydrogen gas

Hydrogen iodide
Shortcut to decide polarity of bonds
Non-polar bonds= bonds between the same atoms

Polar bonds= bonds between different atoms ( except C and H)

This is not 100% accurate but it works for many of the common chemical
substance.
Molecules
Particles with specific numbers of atoms covalently bonded to each other.

Properties of molecules are determined by the shape of the molecule and the
covalent bonds within the molecule.
Octet rule (to rule them all)
A rule which states that covalent bonds should result in full outer energy level in
all the atoms in the molecule (8 electrons).

Usually works for general chemical substances used at this level.

Except: hydrogen(2) and boron (6)
Dot and cross diagram of molecules
1. Draw Lewis diagrams of the atoms in the molecule

2. Decide which atom is central atom if there is more than

one type of atom.

3. Make each unpaired electron shared with other atoms.

Drawing Lewis diagrams/Dot and cross
diagrams
Add all the number of valence electrons in the molecule
Choose the central atom ( the atom which can form most bonds)
Put non-central atoms around the central atom.
Put electrons to form single bonds and achieve the octet rule by having 8 electrons around all the
atoms.
Count the number of electrons in the diagram and compare with your sum from the start. If they
are equal, your diagram is correct. If not, it needs to be changed
If it has 2 more electrons than your sum, form a double bond by taking 2 electrons from each atom
of the bond and placing 2 electrons between them. Repeat if more electrons need to be removed
Drawing dot and cross diagrams
Dot and cross represent electrons from different atoms in the molecule.

e.g. Carbon Dioxide

Practice
1. Water
2. Oxygen
3. Nitrogen
4. Ammonia
5. CH4
6. C2H4
Shapes Electron Bonds Lone pairs
clouds around
Shapes of the molecules
the central
atom
Linear 2 2 0
Triangular 3 3 0
planar
Tetrahedral 4 4 0
Triangular 4 3 1
pyramidal
Bent 4 2 2
What is the shape of the following
molecules?
1. CCl4
2. H2S
3. NO3-
4. SO2
Polarity of molecules: Extension
Molecules can be polar or non-polar.

Polar molecules have slightly negative and slightly positive end.

It is determined by the polarity of the bonds and also the shape of the molecules
Polarity of molecules
1. Are there polar bonds? (Do dipoles exist?)
If No= it is probability a non-polar molecule.
If Yes= go to the Question 2
2. Which shape is the molecule? (Is it symmetrical or asymmetrical shape?)
If symmetrical (no lone pairs and all equal bonds)= it is a non-polar molecule
If asymmetrical ( there are lone pairs and/or different bonds) = it is a polar
molecule
Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding occurs in metallic elements.

It is an electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions in the lattice and
delocalised valence electrons(sea of electrons).

It is a non-directional bonding unlike, ionic and covalent bonds.

Structure of matter
Studying 4 different structures (solid state)
1. Description of the structure
2. Explanation of the physical properties
Ionic structure
Cations and anions are held by electrostatic attraction and they are in a 3D lattice
structure.

Ionic bonding determines the physical properties of the ionic structures.

Ionic bonding is strong due to the electrostatic attraction and 3D lattice structure.
Physical properties of ionic structure
Melting and Boiling point
Solubility
Conductivity of electricity
Hard but brittle
Melting and Boiling point of ionic
compound
Melting and Boiling points are relatively high.

Ionic bonding is a strong electrostatic attraction. Large number of ionic bonding

in 3D lattice structure makes it even stronger.

Greater amount of energy is required to break the ionic bonds between the ions.
Hard but brittle ionic compound
Hard, because the ionic bonding is strong.

Brittle, because when lattice shifts, like charged ions are closer together which
causes repulsion.
Solubility of ionic compound
Dissolves in polar solvents such as water.

Polar water molecules can attract charged cations and anions which can pull
them out of the lattice structure.
Conductivity of electricity of ionic
compound
Cannot conduct electricity when in solid state.
Charged ions are fixed in position in 3D lattice and they cannot move.

Can conduct electricity when in molten or aqueous state

Charged ions can act as freely moving charged particles for electricity to conduct
when it is molten or in aqueous state.
Metallic Structure
Metallic cations are in 3D lattice structure with “sea” of delocalised electrons
around them.

Metallic bonding is between the cations and the delocalised electrons.

Therefore, it is stronger with more delocalised electrons and smaller cations.
Example of alloys
Brass:
Bronze:
Alloys
Mixture of
metals.
Physical properties of metallic structure
Melting and Boiling point
Solubility
Conductivity of electricity
Hard
Malleable and ductile
Melting and Boiling point of metallic
structures
Melting and Boiling points are relatively high.
(but there are some metals with lower melting point)

Metallic bonding is strong.

Greater amount of energy is required to break the metallic bonds

between the ions.
Hard but malleable metallic structure
Hard, because the metallic bonding is strong.

Malleable, lattice can shift without breaking metallic bond.

Solubility of metallic structure
Metallic structure does not dissolve in water.
Conductivity of electricity of metallic
structure
Can conduct electricity.

Delocalised electrons can act as freely moving charged

particles for electricity to conduct.
Molecular structure
Molecules are held together by weak intermolecular attractions.

Example:
Molecules
What is a molecule?

Which bonds hold the atoms together?

Structure of a molecular substance is made up of many molecules.

Physical properties of molecules
Intra-molecular attraction vs Inter-
molecular attraction
Intra-molecular= within the molecule (covalent bonds holding atoms together)

Inter-molecular= between the molecules ( weak attractions between the

molecules)

Inter-molecular attractions determine the structure of the molecular substance

and therefore the physical properties of molecules.
Inter-molecular attraction
Strength of an inter-molecular attraction is determined by 2 factors.
1. Bigger molecules have stronger inter-molecular attraction
2. Polarity of molecules (Polar molecules have stronger inter-molecular
attraction)
Inter-molecular attraction
Examples:
Non-polar molecules- Oxygen gas/ Carbon dioxide gas
Polar molecules- Ammonia/ Alcohol
Physical properties
Melting and boiling points
Solubility
Conductivity of electricity
Brittle
Soft
Melting and Boiling point
Molecules generally have low melting and boiling point because they have weak
intermolecular attractions holding the molecules together.

Many of the molecules are gases. Give some examples:

Talk to the person next to you!!

Polar molecule vs Non-polar molecule
Which molecule will have higher melting or boiling point?
Brittle and Soft
Talk to the person next to you!!!!
Why are molecular structures generally brittle or soft?

Why is wax softer than ice? They are both molecules

Solubility
Polar solvents can dissolve polar molecules and ionic compounds.
Non-polar solvents can dissolve other non-polar molecules.
This is due to the different types of inter-molecular attractions.

Talk to the person next to you!!!

Why can ethanol which is polar dissolve non-polar molecules such as iodine?
Conductivity of electricity
Molecular structures do not have freely moving charged particles.
Therefore no conductivity of electricity.
Recap
Which substances will be soluble in water? Explain

1. Ammonia
2. Sodium carbonate
3. Methane
4. Hydrogen sulfide
Macromolecules/Giant covalent
networks
Atoms are bonded together covalently but they form a large network (lattices) of
atoms rather than a molecule.

You need to know properties of 3 different examples of giant covalent structures.

Diamond, Graphite and Silicon dioxide
Macromolecules/Giant covalent
networks
The covalent bonds between the atoms and how they are arranged in the lattice
will determine the physical properties of these structures.
Diamond
Carbon atoms are covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms.

There is a tetrahedral shape around each carbon atom.

The structure is a 3D network.

Physical properties of diamond
Melting and Boiling point- very high
Solubility- not soluble
Conductivity of electricity – cannot conduct electricity
Brittle but hard
Graphite
Carbon atoms are bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.
The left over electron is delocalised.

There is a triangular planar shape around each carbon atom.

The structure forms a 2D layer, which are held by weak attraction caused by
delocalised electrons.
Physical properties of graphite
Melting and Boiling point- high
Solubility- no solubility
Conductivity of electricity- can conduct electricity
Easy to break at one axis(Layers can slide off). Difficult at another.
Silicon dioxide (quartz and sand)
1 silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, each oxygen is bonded to 2 silicon
atoms.

There is a tetrahedral shape around each silicon atom and bent shape around each
oxygen atom.

The structure forms a 3D network

Physical properties of silicon dioxide
Melting and Boiling point- very high
Solubility- not soluble
Conductivity of electricity – cannot conduct electricity
Brittle but hard
 Recap: Complete the table below
Types of particles Types of bonding Structure description

Ionic structure

Metallic structure

Molecular structure

Giant covalent network