Unit – 3

Data Collection
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has
been defined and research design/ plan has been chalked out.

There are two types of data collection namely

Primary Data

Secondary Data
Primary Data

The primary data are those which are collected fresh

for the first time and thus happen to be original in
character.

Secondary Data

Secondary data are those which have already been

collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process.
Lennox expands R&D presence in Chennai
Lennox International, which specializes in the HVACR (heating, 
ventilation,airconditioning and refrigeration.

"We have invested an over $10 million till date in our R&D operations
in India. With this, our head count would move up to 300,

Mercedes-Benz India R&D to ramp up hiring in

India
The move comes as parent company Daimler looks to shift more
software and R&D projects to India to leverage engineering talent in
the country
 Primary data Vs Secondary data
Basis of Primary Data Secondary Data
Comparison
Object Originate with the specific Research Gathered for some other
undertaking purpose but are applicable to
present investigation
Cost Involved Collection is expensive Collection is cheaper
Time Consumption Collection can take weeks or even Collection time usually
months involves hours or days
Nature of Errors Errors can be there due to There may be inaccuracies due
interviewer and respondent biases to errors in recording or
transferring of the original data
Accuracy and The information is more valid, The validity of information
validity reliable and relevant should be judged/evaluated
before using secondary data
Mode of collection Information is to be generated Information already exist
either by questioning the people or
by observing selected activities
Need of Auxiliary Data collection instrument are No need of data collection
Instrument designed according the need of instrument.
investigation
 Methods of primary data collection

Methods of Primary
Data Collection

Critical
Observ Online Case- Portfolio
Survey Diaries inciden
ation surveys studies s.
ts

Questionnair
Interview Schedules
e
 SURVEY

Survey means a planned effort to collect the desired information

from a representative sample of the relevant population known as
respondents.

Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in

applied research.
 SURVEY
Survey means a planned effort to collect the desired information from a
representative sample of the relevant population known as respondents.

Advantages of Surveys

1. High Representativeness
2. Low Costs
3. Convenient Data Gathering
4. Good Statistical Significance
5. Little Or No Observer Subjectivity
6. Precise Results

Disadvantages of Surveys
1. Inflexible Design
2. Not Ideal for Controversial Issues
3. Possible Inappropriateness of Questions
 Interviews

Interview is a personal form of research than

questionnaires..

Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to

gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and
motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behavior.

Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-

one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work,
at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some
other agreed location.
 Interview

Telephonic Personal

In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly

with the respondent.

The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement

instrument and interviewers have to be well trained in
how to respond to any contingency.
Telephonic interview is considered to be a cost effective and dominant data
collection method because of the following reasons.
Advantages

1. The travel time of interviewers is totally eliminated.

2. The cost of travel of interviewers is also eliminated.
3. Greater possibility of reaching the customers all over the geography.
4. Total time of conducting the interview of the sample is least when compared
to other methods.
5. Greater possibility of random selection of respondents among the population
having telephone connection.
Disadvantages
6. Impossible to employ visual aids.
7. Exclusion of population who are not having telephone connection.
8. Interviewee may discontinue conversation in the mid-way unlike the
personnel interview in which there is greater probability of completing the
interview fully because of the rapport developed between the interviewer
through personal contact.
 SCHEDULES
The schedules (proforma containing a set of questions)
are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose.

These enumerators along with schedules, go to

respondents, put to them the questions for the proforma
in the order the questions are listed and record the
replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the

investigation and also remove the difficulties which any
respondent may feel in understanding the implications of
a particular question or the definition or concept of
different terms.
 SCHEDULES
This method requires the selection of enumerators for
filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up
schedules .

Such enumerators should be carefully selected and

should be trained to perform their job well and the nature
and scope of the investigation should be explained to
them thoroughly.

Enumerators should be intelligent and must posses

Observation

Observation involves recording the behavioral pattern

of people, object and events in a systematic manner to
obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.

Online surveys:

An online survey is a questionnaire that the target

audience can complete over the internet.

Online surveys are usually created as web forms with a

database to store the answers and statistical software
to provide analytics.
Case-studies

The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive

examination of a single unit such as a person, a small
group of people, or a single company.

Case-studies involve measuring what is there and how it

got there. It can enable the researcher to explore, unravel and
understand problems, issues and relationships.

The case looked at may be unique and, therefore not

representative of other instances.

The case-study approach is often done to make practical

improvements.
The case-study method has four steps

1. Determine the present situation.

2. Gather background information about the past and key

variables.

3. Test hypotheses. The background information collected

will have been analyzed for possible hypotheses.

4. Take remedial action.

Diaries
A diary is a way of gathering information about the way
individuals spend their time on professional activities.
Advantages:
1. Useful for collecting information from employees.
2. Allows the researcher freedom to move from one
organization to another.
3. Researcher not personally involved.
4. Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive
interviewing.
5. Used as an alternative to direct observation or where
resources are limited
Disadvantages:
Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to
do, why and what you plan to do with the data.
Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.
Critical incidents

The critical incident technique is an attempt to identify the

more ‘noteworthy’ aspects of job behavior and is based on the
assumption that jobs are composed of critical and non-critical
tasks.

For example, a critical task might be defined as one that

makes the difference between success and failure in carrying
out important parts of the job.

The idea is to collect reports about what people do that is

particularly effective in contributing to good performance.

The incidents are scaled in order of difficulty, frequency

and importance to the job as a whole.
Portfolio’s

1. A measure of a manager’s ability may be expressed in terms of the

number and duration of ‘issues’ or problems being tackled at any
one time.

2. The compilation of problem portfolios is recording information about

how each problem arose, methods used to solve it, difficulties
encountered, etc.

3. This analysis also raises questions about the person’s use of time.
What proportion of time is occupied in checking; in handling
problems given by others; on self-generated problems; on ‘top-
priority’ problems; on minor issues, etc?

4. The main problem with this method and the use of diaries is getting
people to agree to record everything in sufficient detail for you to
analyze. It is very time-consuming.
Questionnaire
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to
design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is
produced.

It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public
organizations and even by government.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite

order on a form or set of forms.

A questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose
in questionnaire.

Three main aspects of questionnaires are:

1). General form
2).Question sequence
3).Question formulation and wording.
 Construction of questionnaire and instrument

1. Determine what information is needed

2. Determine the type of questionnaire to use
3. Determine the content of individual questions
4. Determine the type of questions
Contingency questions - A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a
particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people
that do not apply to them.

Matrix questions - Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions.

Closed ended questions - Respondents’ answers are limited to a fixed set of

responses. Most scales are closed ended.

Sex:    Male [   ] Female [   ]

Did you watch television last night?   Yes [   ] No [   ]

Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with a “yes” or a “no”.

Multiple choice - The respondent has several options from which to choose.

Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum (example: rate the

appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred
appearance). Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic
differential scale, etc
Open ended questions - No options or predefined categories are suggested.
The respondent supplies their own answer without being constrained by a
fixed set of possible responses. Examples of types of open ended questions
include: (2 marks)
Completely unstructured - For example, “What is your opinion of
questionnaires?”

Word association - Words are presented and the respondent mentions

the first word that comes to mind.

Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incomplete sentence.

For example, “The most important consideration in my decision to buy a
new house is . . .”

Story completion - Respondents complete an incomplete story.

Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty conversation.

Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain a picture or
make up a story about what they think is happening in the
picture
5). Decide on wording of questions:
• Define the issue
• Should question be subjective or objective
• Positive or negative statement
• Use simple words
• Avoid ambiguous & leading questions.

6). Decide on sequence questions

A questionnaire has three major sections:
• Basic information
• Classification information
• Identification information

7). Decide the length of questionnaire

7). Decide the length of questionnaire

How long the questionnaire/ schedule would be depends upon:

What the researcher wants to know and how many items are
necessary
• On the type of study
• On the time which the researchers has available for the
study
• On the time the respondents can and will take
• On researchers resources.

It is equally important that the time for filling up questionnaires

or responding to interview schedule is generally limited to 30-40
minutes in comparison to face to face interview which can continue
for 45-60 minutes.
8) Decide on layout and reproduction:

9). Check questions

10) Pre- test

11). Revision and final draft

Sampling Techniques
What exactly IS a “sample”?
 Terminology
• Population - Population is the group which is used to generalize the
study.

• Sample - Sample is the group of people that is to be selected for study.

• Census- A census is the process of obtaining information about every

member of a population

• Sampling Design- It is a technique or procedure for selecting item for

the sample.
 What do qualitative researchers worry
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 SAMPLING
The process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals represent the larger group from
which they were selected
or
Sampling involves selecting a relatively small
number of elements (sample) from a larger
defined group (population) and expecting the
information gathered from the small group will
enable judgments about the larger group.
SAMPLE
Sample is the group of people that is to be
selected for study.

The representatives selected for a study whose

characteristics exemplify(illustrate) the larger
group from which they were selected.
POPULATION

The larger group from which individuals are

selected to participate in a study.

Population is the group which is used to generalize

the study.
SAMPLING FRAME
List of the population from which a sample is
chosen.
 The sampling frame must be representative of the
population.
 The listing of the accessible population from which
the sample is drawn is called sampling frame.

 It Is the list of units of analysis from which you

take your sample and to which you generalize.
• Response- Response is a specific measurement

value that a sampling unit supplies.

• Population Parameter – When mean or average

is calculated on entire population, this is not

referred as statistics, it is a population parameter.

POPULATION

A population can be defined as including all

people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
Population is the group which is used to generalize
the study. The entire group of people of interest
from whom the researcher needs to obtain
information.

The larger group from which individuals are

selected to participate in a study.
 Sampling Terms
Population

Elements
(people, products, etc.)

Defined target
population

Sampling units
(available elements)

Sampling frame

10-36
SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

37
38
What exactly IS a “sample”?
Sampling Design Process
Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Type of Procedure Type of Procedure
Simple Random Sampling Convenience
Stratified Sampling Judgmental
Cluster Sampling Quota

Determine Appropriate
Sample Size

Execute Sampling
Design
Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)

• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and
who is most likely to have it.

How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)

• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However
it is not necessary to sample the entire target population.

How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)

• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population
( probability sample) .

• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information
from ( non probability sample)
 Sampling Methods

Probability
Probability
sampling
sampling
Nonprobability
Nonprobability
sampling
sampling

10-42
 Types of Sampling
Methods
Probability Non probability
• Simple random • Convenience
sampling sampling
• Systematic random • Judgment sampling
sampling • Quota sampling
• Stratified random
• Snowball sampling
sampling
• Cluster sampling

10-43
Probability sampling

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every

unit in the population has a equal chance (greater than
zero) of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined.

When every element in the population does have the

same probability of selection, this is known as an ‘Equal
Probability of Selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are
also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all sampled
units are given the same weight.
Probability sampling
Probability sampling --- every member has an equal
chance of being selected.

Major advantage: reduces possibility of bias.

Non Probability sampling
Any sampling method where some elements of
population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of
selection can't be accurately determined.
It involves the selection of elements based on
assumptions regarding the population of interest, which
forms the criteria for selection.
Non-probability – we don’t know the probability of
selecting a unit into a particular sample.
 How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)

• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire

population (Probability sample)

• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain

information from ( non probability sample)
 Summary of Comparative Differences between
Probability and Non probability Sampling Methods

Comparisons Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

Use of the population Complete List necessary Not necessary
elements

Information about the Each unit identified Need details on habits,

sampling units activities, traits etc.

Time requirement Time consuming Low time consumption

Cost per unit sampled Moderate to high Low
Estimation of population Unbiased Biased
parameters
Sample representatives Good, Assured Suspect, undeterminable

10-48
 Sampling
Probability Sampling
Probability

Simple
Simple Random
Random Sampling
Sampling

Systematic
Systematic Random
Random Sampling
Sampling

Stratified
Stratified Random
Random Sampling
Sampling

Cluster
Cluster Sampling
Sampling

10-49
 Simple Random Sampling

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10-50
 Simple Random Sample
• Every subset of a specified size n from the
population has an equal chance of being
selected
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available

• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of
the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.

• It provides for greatest number of possible samples.

• This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.

• A table of random number or lottery system is used to

determine which units are to be selected.

52
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING……..
ADVANTAGES

• Estimates are easy to calculate.

• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all

EPS designs are simple random sampling.

DISADVANTAGES

• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present

in sample in sufficient numbers for study.

53
 Systematic Random Sampling

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds

with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In
this case,

k = (population size/sample size).

k = 100/20, i.e. Every 5th element will be selected

• It is important that the starting point is not automatically the

first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the
first to the kth element in the list.

• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from

the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred
to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
55
 Systematic Sample
• Every kth member ( for example: every 10th
person) is selected from a list of all population
members.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all
elements have the same probability of selection (in the example
given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random sampling' because
different subsets of the same size have different selection
probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten
probability of selection, but the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero
probability of selection.

57
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……

ADVANTAGES:
• Easy to select the sample.
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily.
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with
that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.

58
 Stratified Random Sample
• The population is divided into two or more groups
called strata, according to some criterion, such as
geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and
subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.
 Stratified Random Sample
• Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called
proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your
population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a
simple random sample in each subgroup. In more formal terms:

• Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups

(i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + Ni =
N. Then do a simple random sample of f = n/N in each strata.
 Stratified Random Sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not a homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling techniques is applied.
Population is divided on the basis of characteristic
of interest in the population e.g. male and female may
have different consumption patterns
Has a smaller sampling error than simple random
sample since a source of variation is eliminated.
 3. Selecting a Sampling Design
Stratified Sampling (II)
• Direct Proportional Stratified Sampling
– The sample size in each stratum is proportional to the
stratum size in the population
• Disproportional Stratified Sampling
– The sample size in each stratum is NOT proportional to
the stratum size in the population
– Used if
1) some strata are too small
2) some strata are more important than others
3) some strata are more diversified than others
 Cluster Sample
• The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families. A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups
and then all members of the cluster selected are surveyed.
 Cluster Sample
• Eg. Some departmental stores wishes to sample its credit card holders. It
has issued its cards to 15,000 customers.

• The sample size is to be kept 450.

For clusters sampling the list of 15,000 card holders are

formed into 100 clusters (consists of 150 card holders
each).

Three clusters might then be selected for the sample

randomly.
 Area random sampling

divide population into clusters

(usually along geographic boundaries)
randomly sample clusters
measure units within sampled clusters
 Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Nonprobability

Convenience
Convenience Sampling
Sampling

Judgment
Judgment Sampling
Sampling

Quota
Quota Sampling
Sampling

Snowball
Snowball Sampling
Sampling

10-66
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Randomized events
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irrelevant to
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social life.
life.

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Probability sampling
sampling is
is
expensive
expensive and
and inefficient.
inefficient.

Non-probability
Non-probability sampling
sampling is
is
the
the best
best approach.
approach.
 Convenience Sample
• One of the most common methods of
sampling .

• "man on the street“.

• Interviews conducted frequently by television
news programs to get a quick (although non
representative) reading of public opinion
 Convenience Sample
• The process of including whoever happens to
be available at the time. Selection of whichever
individuals are easiest to reach

• It is done at the “convenience” of the

researcher.
 Also called as “accidental” or haphazard”
sampling.

 Find some people that are easy to find.

Disadvantages
It is difficulty in determining how much of the
effect (dependent variable) results from the
cause (independent variable)
 Purposive sampling

• The process whereby the researcher selects a

sample based on experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled.
• Also called as Judgement sampling.
 Quota sampling
It is an important non – probability sampling
techniques.
The process whereby a researcher gathers data from
individuals possessing identified characteristics and
quotas.
The actual selection of items for sample being left
to the interviewer’s judgement.

Quota samples generally happen to be judgement

samples rather than random samples.
 Quota sampling is a way of selecting people for use
in such things as a survey.

It basically selects a certain number of people from a

certain group,

for example, a select amount of males and females. 

This method of selection is used

in interview selections, product selections, marketing
strategies and most elements of business running.
What does quota sampling do?

If this is used for interview candidates for example,

it means the choice available to the employers may not
be very varied.

For example

It can be used to select a group from a specific

educational background and a certain amount of
experience etc. This reduces the diversity in the select
people.
Advantages of quota sampling

1. One of the bigger advantages of quota sampling is that the

researcher has complete control over the sample.

2. It allows samples to be completed in a short amount of time.

3. It is an independent study and requires no follow ups.

4. Preventing decisions to be polluted by unnecessary input

5. It saves money when time is an issue

6. It is quick and easy to arrange.

Disadvantage of quota sampling

Decisions are limited due to the control that the

researchers do have.

It does not allow for much variation and the process is not
random, so being able to access a specific error is not
possible.

Limits your decisions.

Does not allow much variety.

It is not possible to assess sample error as it is not random

 Snowball sampling
1. Find a few people that are relevant to your topic.
2. Ask them to refer you to more of them.

3. Locate one or more key individuals and ask them

to name others who would be likely candidates
for your research.

4. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you

are trying to reach populations that are
inaccessible or hard to find.
 Snowball sampling
In statistical research, snowball sampling is a non-probability
method used for rare studies or research limited to rare small
groups of population.

The technique works like a chain referral system where existing

study subjects recruit additional subjects from their contact
groups.
This causes the sample group to keep growing similar to how a
snowball grows.

Snowball sampling is also referred to as chain sampling, chain

referral sampling or referral sampling.
Once the original subject has been studied, the researcher asks
the subject to find people with similar traits to expand the
sampling group.
Step: 1
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who
meets the criteria for inclusion in your study.

Step: 2

You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who
also meet the criteria.
Example of snowball sampling

For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are

not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people
within a specific geographical area.

However, if you go to that area and identify one or two,

you may find that they know very well who the other
homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find
them.
Advantages of snowball sampling
1. Low Cost
2. Useful for Sampling of Special Population Segments.
3. Possible to include members of groups where no lists or identifiable
clusters even exist (e.g., drug abusers, criminals)

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

 No way of knowing whether the sample is representative of the
population
 Sampling Bias.
 Lack of Control over the Sampling Method
 Potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s criteria and resulting
sample selections.
 Sampling techniques: Advantages and disadvantages
Technique Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages
Simple random Random sample from Highly representative if all Not possible without
whole population subjects participate; the complete list of population
ideal members; potentially
uneconomical to achieve;
can be disruptive to isolate
members from a group;
time-scale may be too long,
data/sample could change

Stratified random Random sample from Can ensure that specific
identifiable groups (strata), groups are represented,
subgroups, etc. even proportionally, in the
sample(s) (e.g., by gender),
by selecting individuals
from strata list
More complex, requires
greater effort than simple
random; strata must be
carefully defined

Cluster Random samples of Possible to select randomly Clusters in a level must be

successive clusters of when no single list of
subjects (e.g., by population members exists,
institution) until small but local lists do; data
groups are chosen as units collected on groups may
avoid introduction of
confounding by isolating
members
equivalent and some
natural ones are not for
essential characteristics
(e.g., geographic: numbers
equal, but unemployment
rates differ)
Stage Combination of Can make up Complex, combines
cluster (randomly probability sample by limitations of cluster
selecting clusters) and
random at stages and and stratified random
random or stratified within groups; sampling
random sampling of possible to select
individuals random sample when
population lists are
very localized
Purposive Hand-pick subjects on Ensures balance of Samples are not
the basis of specific group sizes when easily defensible as
characteristics multiple groups are to being representative
be selected of populations due to
potential subjectivity
of researcher
Quota Select individuals as Ensures selection of Not possible to prove
they come to fill a adequate numbers of that the sample is
quota by subjects with representative of
characteristics appropriate designated population
proportional to characteristics
populations
Snowball Subjects with desired Possible to include No way of knowing
traits or members of groups whether the sample is
characteristics give where no lists or representative of the
names of further identifiable clusters population
appropriate subjects even exist (e.g., drug
abusers, criminals)
Volunteer, Either asking for Inexpensive way of Can be highly
accidental, volunteers, or the ensuring sufficient unrepresentative
convenience consequence of not numbers of a study
all those selected
finally participating,
or a set of subjects
who just happen to be
available
 Multistage sampling
1. This is a further development of cluster sampling.

2. his technique is meant for BIG inquiries. – reasonably for

large geographical area like an entire country.

States

Districts

Towns

Small families from towns

 Types
Types of
of Error
Error

Sampling
Sampling Nonsampling
Nonsampling

10-86
Sampling Error

Any type of bias that results from mistakes in either the

selection process for prospective sampling units or in
determining the sample size.

Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and

the population that exist only because of the observations
that happened to be selected for the sample.

Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error.

Non sampling Error
Bias that occurs in a research study regardless of whether a
sample or census is used; e.g., bias caused by measurement
errors, response errors, coding errors, etc.

Non sampling errors are more serious and are due to mistakes
made in the acquisition of data or due to the sample
observations being selected improperly. Three types of non
sampling errors:

Errors in data acquisition,

Non response errors, and
Selection bias.
Note: increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of
error.