Chapter: 2

Discrete Signal
Text: DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING: A MODERN INTRODUCTION
Author : ASHOK AMBARDAR ; Publisher: Thomson
Contents
• Causal & Anti-Causal Signal
• Signal Representation
• Digital Frequency
• Ensemble
• Ergodic
• Mathematical Example

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Causal & Anti-Causal Signal
• Causal Signals are signals that are zero for all negative time. A continuous time
signal x(t), is said to be casual if : x(t)=0 for every t<0, the signal x(t) does not start
before t=0.
• In this figure, the discrete signal x[n] is called causal because it is zero for n < 0.

Fig.1. Causal Signal

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Causal & Anti-Causal Signal
• Anti
  Causal Signals are signals that are zero for all positive time. A continuous
time signal x(t), is said to be anti casual if : x(t)=0 for every t>0, the signal x(t)
does not continue after t=0.
• In this figure, the discrete signal x[n] is called anti causal because anti-causal if it
is zero for n0.

Fig.2.Anti Causal Signal

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Shifting and Folding
• Example 2.2

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Shifting and Folding
Sketches for Example 2.2

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Signal Representation by Impulses
•A  discrete signal x[n] may be expressed as a sum of shifted impulses whose sample
values correspond to x[k], the values of x[n] at n = k. Thus,

(1)

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Signal Representation by Impulses

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Digital Frequency
•If  we sample an analog sinusoid at intervals of corresponding to a sampling rate of
S = 1/ samples/s (or S Hz), we obtain the sampled sinusoid,
==
The quantities f and = 2 f describe analog frequencies. The normalized frequency F = f/S is called the digital
frequency and has units of cycles/sample.

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Digital Frequency
The Digital Frequency Is the Analog Frequency Normalized by Sampling Rate S.

Fig.3. Comparison of analog and digital frequencies

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Ensemble
•A  random signal or random process X(t) comprises the family or ensemble of all
such realizations obtained by repeating the experiment many times.
• The probability of an event A, denoted , is the proportion of successful outcomes
to the (very large) number of times the experiment is run and is a fraction
between 0 and 1 since the number of successful runs cannot exceed the total
number of runs. The larger the probability , the more the chance of event
• An occurring. To fully characterize a random variable, we must answer two
questions:
1. What is the range of all possible (nonrandom) values it can acquire? This defines an
ensemble space, which may be finite or infinite.
2. What are the probabilities for all the possible values in this range? This defines the
probability distribution function F(x). Clearly, F(x) must always lie between 0 and 1.

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Ergodic
• A stationary process is typically characterized by a constant mean and constant
variance. The statistical properties of a stationary random signal may be found as
ensemble averages across the process by averaging over all realizations at one specific
time instant or as time averages along the process by averaging a single realization
over time.
• The two are not always equal. If they are, a stationary process is said to be ergodic.
• The biggest advantage of ergodicity is that we can use features from a single
realization to describe the whole process.
• It is very difficult to establish whether a stationary process is ergodic but, because of
the advantages it offers, ergodicity is often assumed in most practical situations!
• For an ergodic signal, the mean equals the time average, and the variance equals the
ac power (the power in the signal with its dc component removed).

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Decimation and Interpolation

• Example 2.4

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Example 2.4 (Cont.)

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Signal Reconstruction & Aliasing (Example 2.7)

Solution

*Concept of Digital Frequency

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Example 2.7

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Example 2.7

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Example 2.7

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THANK YOU

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