Carbon

Compounds
PRESENTER: SHANNON SMITH
 1.1 Explain the
occurrence of carbon 1.2 Explain the meaning 1.3 Distinguish among
1.4 Determine formulae 1.5 Write structural
compounds with straight of the term ‘homologous empirical, molecular,
from experimental data. formulae
chains, branched chains series’. and structural formulae.
and rings.

1.9 Determine the

1.6 Apply the IUPAC
1.7 Define structural 1.8 Explain possible isomers from
rules to named organic
isomerism. stereoisomerism.. given molecular
compounds.
formulae

Objectives
Catenation is the ability of carbon atoms to
form chains or ring compounds by joining
The variety of carbon
together. compounds
 Carbon forms many more compounds than
any other element.
 (C-C) bonds are very strong in comparison
to other single covalent bonds
 Compounds formed are stable.
 C-C bonds are non polar (this reduces their
vulnerability to chemical attack)
 Hybridisation in
carbon compounds
 Carbon exhibits tetravalency.
 One of the 2s electrons is transferred
to a 2p orbital.
 Energy for promotion of electron is
compensated by energy released
when bonds are formed.
 Carbon has sp3 hybrid orbitals.
 These overlap to form single bonds
(σ bonds).

Tetravalency means having four valence

electrons in the outer principle quantum shell.
 Hybridisation in
Hybridisation is the process of mixing atomic carbon compounds
orbitals.

 In ethene, 1 singly occupied 2s orbital and

2 of the 3 singly occupied 2p orbitals
hybridize to make 3 sp2 orbitals.
 These sp2 form σ bonds make 120°.
 The remaining 2p orbitals overlap
sideways to form a ℼ bond.
 Resonance
 In ethane and ethene the electrons are
localised.
 Benzene can be represented as a composite
structure called a resonance hybrid.
 Carbon toms have 3 sp2 orbitals (one to
each hydrogen atom and 2 other carbon
atoms).
 The single p orbital left over each carbon
atom overlap sideways to form a
delocalised system of ℼ bonds.
 These compounds are called aryl
compounds.

Delocalised means the electrons move freely

over molecular orbitals extended over 3 or
more atoms..
A homologous series is a group of organic What is a homologous
compounds with the same functional group in
which each successive member increases by series?
the unit –CH2.

A functional group is an atom or group of

atoms that give a compound its particular
chemical properties.

Each homologous series has:

 A general formula.
 Successive members increase by –CH2.
 Members have very similar chemical
properties.
 Physical properties change in a regular
way.
 Empirical and
molecular formulae
The empirical formula shows the simplest
whole number ratio of atoms of each element
present in a compound.

The molecular formula shows the actual

number of atoms of each element present in a
molecule of a compound.
 Structural formulae
The structural formulae shows the
arrangement of atoms in a molecule in a
simplified form. It can be either:
 a displayed formula, showing all atoms
and bonds.
 a condensed formula, where bonds are
not shown.

 With chain hydrocarbons, we can condense

the formula even more.
 Side branches are shown in brackets.
The structure of ring
compounds
 The ring inside represents the
delocalised ring of electrons.
 Deducing the empirical formula
Calculate the empirical formula of a compound of carbon, hydrogen and iodine that contains 8.45% carbon,
2.11% hydrogen and 89.44% iodine by mass. (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, I = 127.0).

Step 1: Assume that we have 100g of the compound, then each of the percentages can be converted to mass,
that is 8.45 g of carbon, 2.11 g hydrogen and 89.44 g of iodine.
Divide mass by Ar to determine number of moles of each atom in the compound.

Step 2: Divide by lowest number to get mole ratio:

Step 3: Write the formula showing the simplest ratio: CH3I.

Deducing the
molecular formula
We can determine the molecular
formular if we know:
 The empirical formula.
 The molar mass of the compound.
The molar mass of a compound can be
found by:
 Weighing a known volume of gas.
 Using a mass spectrometer
 Deducing the molecular formula
Determine the molecular formula of 6.00 g of a hydrocarbon contains 4.80 g of carbon and 1.20 g of
hydrogen. The relative molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 30.

Step 1: Divide mass by Ar to determine number of moles of each atom in the compound.

Step 2: Divide by lowest number to get mole ration:

Step 3: Write the formula showing the simplest ratio: CH3.

 Deducing the molecular formula
Determine the molecular formula of 6.00 g of a hydrocarbon contains 4.80 g of carbon and 1.20 g of
hydrogen. The relative molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 30.

Step 4: Find the empirical formula mass: 12.0 + ( 3 x 1.0) = 15.0

Step 5: Divide the molar mass of the compound by the empirical formula mass.

Step 6: Multiply each atom in the empirical formula by the number deduced in Step 5: CH 3 x 2 = C2H6.
 Molecular formula using Avogadro’s Law
Propane contains carbon and hydrogen only. When 25cm3 of propane reacts with exactly 125cm3 oxygen,
75cm3 of carbon dioxide is formed. Deduce the molecular formula of propane and write a balanced equation
for the reaction.
Naming simple
organic compounds
IUPAC rules:
 The stem tells us how many carbon
atoms there are on the main chain.
 A suffix is added to the end of the
stem and tells us about the functional
groups present.
 A prefix for some homologous series
appears before the stem.
Naming Simple
Organic Compounds
Naming branched-
chain alkanes
IUPAC rules:
 The position of side chains/functional
groups is shown by numbering the
carbons.
 The longest possible chain of carbons
atoms is chosen.
 Numbering starts at the end that gives
the smallest number possible for the
side chain.
 The side chain prefixes the stem name.
 The side chain is named according to
the number of carbon atoms it
contains.
 More than one side
chain?

 If there is more than one of the same alkyl

side chain/functional group, use the
prefixes di-for two groups, tri-for three,
tetra-for four.
Functional group
position
The numbering of functional groups
along the side chain follows many of the
general rules. But note that the number
given to the C=C bond in alkenes is
between the prefix and the stem.
 Chain Isomerism

Isomers are molecules that have the same

molecular formula but the atoms are arranged
differently.

Structural isomerism are compounds with

the same molecular formular but different
structural formulae.

Chain isomerism is where the isomers differ

in the arrangement of carbon atoms in their
carbon skeleton.
 Functional group
Functional group isomerism is where the isomerism
molecular formula of the isomers is the same
but the functional groups are different.
 Positional Isomerism

Positional isomerism is where the position of

the functional group is different in each
isomer.
Isomerism and bond
rotation
 Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomerism is where two (or more)

compounds have the same atoms bonded to
each other but the atoms have a different
arrangement in space.

There are 2 types:

 Geometical isomerism (cis-trans
isomerism)
 Optical isomeris.
Geometircal isomerism occurs when the
substituent groups on either side of a double
bond are arranged either on the same side (cis)
or on the opposite sides (trans).
 Optical isomerism
Optical isomerism happens when four
different groups are attached to the central
carbon atom. The two isomers formed are
mirror images of each other. They are not
identical because they cannot be
superimposed.

 With chain hydrocarbons, we can condense

the formula even more.
 Side branches are shown in brackets.
 Optical isomerism
 In ethane and ethene the electrons are
localised.
 Benzene can be represented as a composite
structure called a resonance hybrid.
 Carbon toms have 3 sp2 orbitals (one to
each hydrogen atom and 2 other carbon
atoms).
 The single p orbital left over each carbon
atom overlap sideways to form a
delocalised system of ℼ bonds.
 These compounds are called aryl
compounds.

Delocalised means the electrons move freely

over molecular orbitals extended over 3 or
more atoms..
Resonance
First Transition Series

 The elements of the fourth period of the Periodic Table are

referred to as the First Transition Series or First Row of
Transition Metals.
 These elements are: Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
 They are all metals with remarkably similar chemical and
physical properties.
 Transition Elements

Definition
Transition elements are defined as
elements where atoms have partially
filled d-orbitals or which form
compounds in which their ion has an
incomplete subshell of 3d electrons.
Exceptions
By this definition, the transition metal
ions: Sc3+, Cu+ and Zn2+ do not meet
the definition of a transition metal ion
but they are included nonetheless.
 Forming transition metal ions

Filling of electrons Loss of electrons

When electrons are being filled (into However, when electrons are being
3d and 4s subshells), the 4s is filled lost (to form ions), it is the 4s electrons
first because it is of lower energy than that are lost first, then the 3d electrons.
the 3d.
 Forming transition metal ions

Filling a 3d subshell (with at least one electron) causes the 4s orbital to exist at a higher energy.
 Forming transition metal ions
 This occurs because the 3d orbitals
are lobe-shaped and can move
closer to the nucleus of the atom
than the 4s orbital, which has a
spherical shape.
 Hence, when an electron enters the
3d orbital, it will effectively screen
the 4s electrons thereby raising
their energy and making them the
first to be lost.
 Chemical properties of transition metal elements

 They have variable oxidation states.

 They can act as homogenous and heterogeneous catalysts.
 They have important magnetic properties e.g. paramagnetism.
 They form complex ions.
 They form colored complexes/ compounds.
 Variable oxidation states

Most of the transition elements can

form compounds in which their
oxidation state differs from one
compound to the next.
 The Range of Oxidation States

Transition elements may have several different oxidation states.

 The most common oxidation state of transition elements is +2.
 The maximum oxidation state of the transition elements up to Mn involves all the 4s and 3d
electrons.
 From Fe onwards, the +2 oxidation state dominates because the 3d electrons become increasingly
harder to remove as the nuclear charge increases.
 It requires more energy to remove an electron from a spin-pair than to remove a single electron .
Variable oxidation states
 Catalyst

Transition metals, both in their

elemental form and in their
compounds, are effective and
important catalysts.

Transition metals and their

complexes/compounds may act as
either homogenous or heterogenous
catalysts.
Catalyst
The Adsorption Theory
The Adsorption Theory
 Homogenous catalyst

The catalysts is in the same physical

state as the reactants, most commonly
in solution form.

This catalytic process usually proceeds

via the formation of some intermediate
complex.

The ability of transition metals to form

ions of varying oxidation states is an
important factor in their ability to act
as homogenous catalysts.
 Complexes
Metal complexes (or simply
complexes) are comprised of a central
metal ion bonded to a group of
surrounding molecules or ions.
If the complex carriers a net charge, it
is called a complex ion e.g.
[Ag(NH3)2]+
Compounds that contain complexes are
known as coordination compounds.
Many coordination compounds contain
transition metal ions, although ions of
other metals can also form complexes.
The molecules or ions that bond to the
metal ions in a complex are known as
ligands, e.g. there are 2 ligands
bonded to the Ag+ ion in [Ag(NH3)2] +.
Each ligand functions as a Lewis base
by donating a pair of electrons to the
metal to form a bond.
Lewis Definition

An acid is an electron pair acceptor, a

base is an electron pair donor
Ligands

Therefore, every ligand has at least one

lone pair of electrons in their outer shell.
e.g. H2O, NH3, Cl-, CN-

As such, most ligands are either polar

molecules or anions. That is, a ligand can
either be a neutral molecule or have a
formal negative charge.
 Complexes

In forming a complex, the ligands are
said to coordinate to the metal.
Coordination number – the no. of
atoms directly bonded to the central
metal ion in a complex.
There are different ways to arrange
ligands around the metal ion in
complexes. This gives rise to the
formation of isomers, different shapes
of complexes, as well as different
colours of complexes.

The central metal and the ligands Some metals exhibit constant
bound to it constitute the coordination coordination numbers, e.g. for Cr(III)
sphere of the complex. and Co(III) ions, the coordination
number is 6; for Pt(III) ions, the
coordination number is 4.
Donor atom – the atom of the ligand
that is bound directly to the metal e.g. The most common coordination
N is the donor atom numbers are 4 and 6.
 Complexes

The coordination number of a metal ion is

often influenced by the relative size of the
metal ion and the surrounding ligands.

As the ligand gets larger, fewer ligands can

coordinate to the metal ion e.g. iron(III) is
able to coordinate to 6 fluorides in [FeF6]3-
but only to 4 chlorides in [FeCl4]-.

4-coordinate complexes have two common

geometries; tetrahedral and square planar.
The tetrahedral geometry is the more
common of the two.

The vast majority of 6-coordinate

complexes have an octahedral geometry.