Thermodynamics

Teacher: Shannon Smith

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 What do we mean by energetics?
Energetics is the study of energy changes that take
place in a chemical reaction.
 What do we mean
by energetics?
 Almost all chemical reactions are
accompanied by energy changes as
bonds are broken and/or formed.
Usually the energy changes involve
heat, but they can also involve
sound, light or even electrical
energy.
 Endothermic Process
To break a bond, energy (heat) has to be absorbed.
 Exothermic Process
When a bond is formed, energy (heat) is released.
 Enthalpy (H) – a thermodynamic function/ term used to describe
the energy/ heat content of a system

The enthalpy (heat) change that accompanies a reaction is called the enthalpy of reaction or
heat of reaction (ΔHrxn)
 Endothermic Reaction
If the energy (heat) absorbed is greater than the
energy (heat) released, then the overall reaction is
ENDOTHERMIC.
 Exothermic Reaction
If the energy (heat) released is greater than the
energy (heat) absorbed, then the overall reaction is
EXOTHERMIC.
Differences between endothermic and exothermic reactions
 Calorimetry

 The value of ΔH can be

determined experimentally by
measuring the heat flow
accompanying a chemical
reaction. Measurement of heat
flow is called calorimetry.
 The device used to measure heat
flow is called a calorimeter e.g. a
Styrofoam cup
Measuring the heat (enthalpy) change, ΔH
 Questions
 1) How much heat is required to warm 250 g of water from 22oC to 98oC?
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g-1 K-1.

Specific heat of water is 4.2J g-1 K-1

Density of water 1g cm-3
Calorimetry
The value of ΔH can be determined experimentally by measuring the heat flow
accompanying a
chemical reaction. Measurement of heat flow is called calorimetry.
The device used to measure heat flow is called a calorimeter e.g. a Styrofoam cup
e.
 Based on Daltons’ Theory atoms are considered
to be the smallest particles of an element that
retain the chemical identity of the element.

An element is composed of only one kind/ type

Conclusion of atom.

A compound contains two or more elements.

 Rutherford disproved
Thompson’s atomic model.

Rutherford discovered the

Conclusion electron.

Most of the atom is empty

space.
Neils’ Bohr Atomic Model
 Energy in an atom is quantized.

Energy is emitted or absorbed by the electrons only

Conclusion as the electron changes

from one energy state to another.

Ground state – refers to when an electron is in its

lowest possible energy state.
Excited state – refers to when an electron is in any
other energy state besides its ground state.
 Modern Atomic
Theory
 Small, dense, positively-charged centre
which contains most of its mass.

 The nucleus contains protons and

neutrons, while electrons can be found
orbiting the nucleus.

 An electrostatic force of attraction exists

between protons in the nucleus and the
orbiting electrons.
The Periodic Table is a table of elements of increasing proton number, arranged so as
to categorise their electronic configurations and chemical properties.
  Principal quantum no. (n)

Quantum  Indicates – energy of the shell

mechanical - size of the shell

model –  n usually takes positive integer values

Principal 1, 2, 3, 4 ….

quantum no.  n also indicates subshells present. n =

2, the 2nd shell has 2 subshells.
  Subsidiary quantum number/ Angular
momentum quantum number (l) (subshell)
 l usually takes positive integer values
from 0 to (n-1).
 Each value of l has its own distinct shape
 0 = s subshell
Subsidiary  1 = p subshell

Quantum  2 = d subshell
 3 = f subshell
Number  Note: All further subshells after f are
named alphabetically: 4 = g, 5 = h, etc.
 e.g. For n = 3 → l = 0, 1, 2
 s, p, d
 Therefore, the third (3rd) electron shell
has three subshells: 3s, 3p, 3d.
Shapes of Subshells
  Magnetic quantum number (orbital)
 This depicts the orientation in space of the
orbital.

Magentic  Each value of l will have a distinct set of

values of ml.
Quantum  ml usually takes integer values from –l to l,
including 0.
Number  e.g. If l = 2 → ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
 All the orbitals that make up a particular
subshell are degenerate (i.e. have the same
energy).
  Spin magnetic quantum number (ms) –
only 2 values :– either +½ (spin: up) or -½
(spin: down)
Spin Magnetic  It was postulated that electrons have an
intrinsic property called electron spin that
Quantum causes each electron to behave as if it were
a tiny magnet.
Number  The values of ms refer to the direction/
orientation of spin of the electron (either
‘up’ or ‘down’).
e.g. An electron has the quantum numbers: (2, 1, -1, +½). Where in the atom is the electron
located?
Hybridisation – this involves the mixing of atomic orbitals to
form new (hybrid) orbitals e.g. mixing s and p orbitals can
create new orbitals called sp orbitals.
  Three sets of rules govern the placement/
distribution of electrons in an atom:
 Aufbau principle – electrons will always
occupy the lowest energy orbitals first.
 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity –
electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals
Electronic singly and with parallel/ same spin, then
they are each paired with an electron of
Configuration opposite spin; this is done so as to minimize
electron repulsion in the orbital.
 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – no 2
electrons in an atom can have the same 4
quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms). Therefore
an orbital can only hold a maximum of 2
electrons and they must have opposite spins.
  Condensed electronic configuration
abbreviates electronic configuration by
using the closest/ nearest noble gas
configuration to the element. The noble gas
chosen has a lower proton no.
 e.g. K = 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 becomes
Electronic  K = [Ar]4s1

Configuration  since 1s22s22p63s23p6 is the electronic

configuration of argon (Ar); i.e. use the
closest noble gas configuration to write the
condensed electronic configuration of the
element.
 e.g. Si = 1s22s22p63s23p2 becomes Si =
[Ne]3s23p2spins.
  Electronic configuration of ions
 e.g. Na - e- → Na+
Electronic  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 → 1s2 2s2 2p6 (or 1s2 2s2
2p6 3s0)
Configuration  e.g. F + e- → F-
 1s2 2s2 2p5 → 1s2 2s2 2p6
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