CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS

(Read pages 3-28 in the textbook)

 PRE-PRESENTATION ACTIVITY:
 Before reading the following slides, please answer the
following questions (send them to the forum if possible):
 1.What are the BASIC CONCEPTS? Name them.
 2.Why are these CONCEPTS BASIC to the FUNCTIONAL
GRAMMAR?
 3.How many structures can be found in a clause/simple
sentence in English?
 4.Try to analyze the conversation (on pages 3-4) in terms of
these structures if possible.
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1.COMMUNICATIVE ACTS (p.3-4)

 Language is for communication.

 In communication, there are various types of communicative
act, SPEECH ACT, by which people communicate with each
other. Eg.

 A dialogue between Janice and Chris.

 Offer J: If you like, I’ll come into your shop tomorrow and get some
more model aeroplane kits.
 Reminder C: O.K. Don’t forget to bring the bill with you this time.
 Promise J: I won’t.
 Question: Do you enjoy working there?
 Statements C: It’s all right, I suppose. Gets a bit boring. It’ll do for a while.
 Statement J: I would have thought you were good at selling things.
 In a communicative exchange, the kind of meaning encoded as
questions, statements, offers, reminders, thanks…
(communicative acts) is interpersonal meaning.

 Communicative acts may be represented by something

linguistic or non-linguistic through verbal or non-verbal
communication (silence, pauses, gestures, facial expressions,
nodding the head,…).
1.2.THE CONTENT OF COMMUNICATION (p.4)

Every speech act, spoken or written, takes place in a social CONTEXT

which has to do with our own or someone else’s experience of life and the
world at large, that is the doings & happenings in which we are involved or
which affect us.
Any happening or state in real life or in an imaginary world of the mind can
be expressed through language
as a SITUATION or STATE OF AFFAIRS referring to
the SPEAKER’S CONCEPTUALIZATION of the real world.
The components of this conceptualization of reality/real world are
SEMANTIC ROLES or FUNCTIONS and may be described in terms
of the semantic frame of the content:

– PARTICIPANTS + PROCESSES + PARTICIPANTS + CIRCUMSTANCES

(ATTRIBUTES) (ATTRIBUTES)
 3 COMPONENTS IN THE SEMANTIC FRAME OF THE CONTENT
OF COMMUNICATION (p.4)

1.PROCESSES (quá trình/diễn trình/sự tình): that is, actions, events, states,
types of behaviour (including material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral,
existential processes)

2.PARTICIPANTS: (tham thể/tham tố):entities of animate and inanimate,

concrete and abstract, that are involved in the processes

 ATTRIBUTES (thuộc tính): qualities and characteristics of the participants

(current/inherent – resulting )

3.CIRCUMSTANCES (chu cảnh/chu tố): any kind of contingent fact or

subsidiary situation which is associated with the process or the main situation
Ex: These elements of semantic structure of the experiential
meaning having to do with the content of the message:

 I ‘ll come into your shop tomorrow.

 Participant + Process + Circumstance + Circumstance
(Agent) (Material: doing) (Location) (Temporal)

 These students became tired of studying hard after exams.

Participant + Process + Attribute + Circumstance

(Carrier) (Relational: Attributing) (Resulting Attr.) (Temporal)

 The kind of meaning expressed by these elements of semantic structure is

representational meaning, or meaning that has to do with the content
of the message.
 1.
PROCESSES

1.1.PROCESSES (quá trình/diễn trình/diễn tố): material, mental, relational,

verbal, behavioral, existential processes (actions, events, states, types of
behavior…)
2.1.TYPES of PROCESS
2.1.1.MATERIAL PROCESSES (quá trình vật chất), PROCESSES of DOING,
HAPPENING, CAUSING and TRANSFERRING (kick, run, paint, fall, melt,
collapse,...)

2.1.2.MENTAL PROCESSES (quá trình tinh thần), processes of SENSING or

EXPERIENCING (see, hear, know, feel, hate...): processes of PERCEPTION (see,
hear, feel),
of COGNITION (know, understand, believe) and
of AFFECTION and DESIDERATION (like, fear; want, wish);

2.1.3.RELATIONAL PROCESSES (quá trình quan hệ), processes of BEING or

BECOMING in which a participant is characterized, or identified, or situated
circumstantially (be, seem, stand, lie, become...)
2.1.4.BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES (quá trình ứng xử) (one-participant,
involuntary process): cough, sneeze, yawn, blink, laugh, sigh…watch, listen

2.1.5.VERBAL PROCESSES (quá trình nói năng): 2-participant processes of

saying and communicating: say, tell, repeat, ask, answer, report..

2.1.6.EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES (quá trình tồn tại): processes of existing and

happening: be, stand, lie, stretch, hang, remain, occur, follow, appear, emerge,
loom,
 2.
PARTICIPANTS

2.PARTICIPANTS: (tham thể/tham tố):entities of animate and inanimate,

concrete and abstract, that are involved in the processes
INHERENT participants are ACTUALIZED in
-Ted kicked the ball (2 participants),
-Mary gave the Red Cross a donation (3 participants)
however
UNACTUALIZED but UNDERSTOOD in
-Ted kicked hard (1 participant),
-Mary gave a donation (2 participants),
-Mary gave generously (1 participant).

ATTRIBUTES (thuộc tính): qualities and characteristics of the participants:

 - Inherent Attribute: - She is happy. They are intelligent.

 - Resulting Attribute: - He became tired. The leaves turned yellow.
 - Monovalent (1) participant process in
The ice melted;

-Bivalent (2) participant process in

The postman rides a motorcycle;

-Trivalent (3) participant process in

Mary gave the Red Cross a donation.

The semantic analysis into actualized and unactualized participants in

paralleled by the syntactic analysis of verbs such as drive, eat,…as being
either
- transitive (V+Obj) or
- intransitive (V-Obj).
 3.
CIRCUMSTANCES (chu cảnh/chu tố): any kind of contingent fact or subsidiary
situation which is associated with the process or the main situation

3.ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES:

3.1.ANGLE: - verbal source

- who says?
- for example:

According to Xian cooking is easy

Cir: angle
3.2.PLACE, TIME and OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES…
PLACE TIME
Location at home, in the park, on the at 5 o’clock, in May, years ago, on
desk Tuesday
Source from the library, from Ed from January

Path The plane flew over the hills, They stayed over the weekend
through the clouds

Direction towards the south towards midnight

Goal to Canada , to the end of May
[we went] home

Extent for several miles for several years

Extent + Goal as far as Granada until 10 o’clock, by Tuesday
Relative nearby, in front, in back of us, now, then, recently, before/after dinner
behind us AmE

Distributive at intervals, every 100 yards at intervals, every so often, now and
then, off and on
2. Extent:- nominal group with quantifier + unit of measure (yards, laps, rounds,
years …) + preposition
- How far/ long/many rounds/times…

Xian cooked the rice for 15 minutes

Cir: extent

3. Location: - prepositional phrase, adveribial group

- place and time
- where and when
- place: space –place or direction (source, passage, destination)

Xian cooked the rice in the microwave

Cir: location: place

Xian cooked the rice in the morning

Cir: location: time
3.3.MANNER: means, quality, comparison, instrumentality,…

4. Manner: - means, quality, comparison

a. means: how, what with?
Xian cooked the rice with microwave
Cir: manner: means

b. Quality: adverbial group (in…way/manner)

How?
Xian cooked the rice quickly/ in the following way
Cir: manner: quality

c. comparison: like, unlike (+adverbials: like, likewise, similarly differently )

What … like?
Xian cooked the rice Like Nan
Cir: manner: comparison
3.4.CAUSE: reason, purpose, condition, concession, behalf,…
Cause: reason, purpose, condition, concession, behalf
a. Reason: through, because of, as a result of, due to, thanks to
Why, how
Xian cooked the pizza thanks to the microwave
Cir: cause: reason

b. purpose: for, in the hope of, for the purpose of

what for?
Xian prepared the table for his lecture
Cir: cause: purpose

c. condition: in the case of, in case

What if?
In the case of token we apply subject in the active
Cir: cause: condition
3.5.INSTRUMENT: - He elbowed his way through the crowd.

3.6.ACCOMPANIMENT: (positive/negative) togetherness

(with/without), (positive/negative) additionality (as well as, instead of)

3.7.MATTER: with reference to, …

7. Matter: about, concerning, with reference to, etc.
Xian saw his supervisors in relation to his study
Cir: matter

8. Role: as, by way of, in the role/shape/guise/form/ of

Xian came as a vampire
Cir: role
3.8.ROLE: capacity
3.9.CONTINGENCY: cause, purpose, reason, concession, behalf, condition,

3.10.DEGREE: emphasis (completely) , attenuation (hardly)

3.11.EVIDENCE: according to,…

3.12.MODALITY: possibility, probability, certainty

3.13.RANGE is a participant: the nominal concept that is implied by the process

as its scope or RANGE: song in sing a song, games in play games, have an
argument (a chat, a drink, a fight,…), give a push (a kick, a smile,…), take, do,
ask, make…
1.3.THREE WAYS OF INTERPRETING CLAUSE
STRUCTURE (p.5)

The basic unit for the expression of REPRESENTATIONAL MEANING and

INTERPERSONAL MEANING is the CLAUSE = SIMPLE SENTENCE.

The CLAUSE is also the unit whose elements can be reordered in certain ways
to facilitate the creation of TEXTUAL MEANING.

Each type of meaning is expressed by its own structure; the three types of
structure combining to produce one single realization in words.
Three kinds of meaning and structure derive from the consideration of a
clause as:
(1) the linguistic representation of our experience of the world (We use
language to talk about our experience of the world, including the worlds in our
own minds, to describe events and states and the entities involved in them) (p.5)

 The clause as representing situations/REPRESENTATION through

TRANSITIVITY STRUCTURES (Cấu trúc Chuyển tác)
Ex:Agent + DOING -Birds fly.
Agent + DOING + Affected -John hit Helen.

 The REPRESENTATIONAL/EXPERIENTIAL MEANING

Ex:Janice will give Chris the bill tomorrow

Agent Process (action) Recipient Affected Circumstance
(2) a communicative exchange between persons (We also use language to
interact with other people, to establish and maintain relations with them, to
influence their behavior, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world, and
to elicit or change theirs) (p.6)

2.1.The clause as INTERACTION through MOOD STRUCTURES (Cấu trúc Thức)

The INTERPERSONAL MEANING

Ex:
Declarative
 Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.
Subject + Finite Predicator Oi Od Adjunct
Mood element + Residue

Interrogative
 Will Janice give Chris the address tomorrow ?
Finite + Subject Predicator Oi Od Adjunct
Mood element + Residue
2.2.The INTERPERSONAL MEANING 
The clause as INTERACTION (Cú như là sự Trao đổi): MOOD STRUCTURES

When a speaker interacts with others to exchange information or to influence

their behavior and get things done, he adopts for himself a certain role
(“questioner”,...) and, in doing so, assigns a complementary role
(“informant”,...), to his addressee.

The clause is the major grammatical unit used by the speakers

+ to ask questions,
+ to make statements and
+ to issue directives.

The Clause structure

= MOOD element (Phần Thức) + RESIDUE/REMAINDER (Phần dư)
(carries the syntactic burden of the exchange) (the unchanged part of the
structure)
2.3.MOOD ELEMENT
The exchange of information is typically carried out by the INDICATIVE MOOD
or CLAUSE TYPE.
1.Within the indicative mood, making a statement is associated with the
DECLARATIVE MOOD,
2.asking a question with the INTERROGATIVE MOOD

The issuing of directives is carried out by the IMPERATIVE MOOD

The Mood structures are characterized by the presence or absence of a

SUBJECT element and by the relative positions of the SUBJECT and the FINITE
relating the content of the clause to the speech event and specifying TENSE
(time reference), MODALITY (attitude of the speaker), PERSON, NUMBER
(finiteness)
(3) an organized message or text (In using language, we organize our messages in
ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages around them and
with the wider context in which we are talking or writing) (p.6-7)
The clause as MESSAGE through THEMATIC STRUCTURES (Cấu
trúc Đề -Thuyết): THEME + RHEME
 The TEXTUAL MEANING
Here, the speaker organises the informational content of the clause so as to
establish whatever point of departure is desired for the message. This is
called the Theme, which in English coincides with the initial element or
elements of the clause. The rest of the clause is the Rheme:
Ex: Janice will give Chris the bill tomorrow
Theme Rheme
 The Theme may coincide with one of the participants (JANICE: AGENT), as in
this example, or it may ‘set the scene’ by coinciding with an initial expression
of time, place, etc
Ex: Tomorrow Janice will give Chris the bill
Theme Rheme
1.3.4.Combining the THREE types of structure realized
by syntactic elements/functions (S, P, Oi, Od, C, A)=
semantic roles (Agent, Recipient, Affected,…) (p.7)

Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.

Experiential Agent Process Recipient Affected Circumstance

Interpersonal Subject Finite+ Indirect Direct Object Adjunct

Predicator Object

Textual Theme Rheme 

In natural language use, a situation can be expressed in different
ways, in which the order of clause elements can vary, since
different elements of structure can be moved to initial position:
Janice will give Chris the address tomorrow.
1.Chris will be given the address by Janice tomorrow.
2.The address will be given to Chris tomorrow by Janice.
3.The address Janice will give Chris tomorrow.
4.The address Janice will give it to Chris tomorrow.
5.Tomorrow, Chris will be given the address (by Janice).
6.Tomorrow, the address will be given to Chris by Janice.
3 types of structural elements do not coincide (vertically) in the same way as
they do in the typical canonical clause.
Ex:
1.Chris will be given the address by Janice tomorrow.
Recipient +Process +Affected +Agent +Circumstance
Subject +Finite+Predicator +Direct Object +Adjunct +Adjunct
Theme + Rheme

2.Tomorrow, the address will be given to Chris by Janice.

Circumstance +Affected +Process + Recipient +Agent
Adjunct + Subject +Finite+Predicator + Oprep +Adjunct
Theme + Rheme
The speaker organizes the content of the clause to establish the point of departure of the
clausal message and to highlight that constituent which is presented as New
information, usually at the end of the clause.

 Subject=Chủ ngữ; Finite=Hữu định; Predicator=Vị ngữ;

Complement=Bổ ngữ; Adjunct=Trạng/Phụ ngữ
UNIT 2: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS (p.9)

2.3.GRAMMATICAL UNITS & RANK OF UNITS: (p.11)

A UNIT will be defined as any sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and
which has a recognised pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and
writing.
Rank Scale Clause  Group/Phrase  Word  Morpheme
1.CLAUSE divided into CLASSES:
(i) Finite/Non-finite;
(ii) Independent/Dependent ;
(iii) Finite Dependent: Circumstantial, Relative, Nominal, Comparative,
Supplementive units...
2.GROUP divided into CLASSES: NG, VG, AdjG, AdvG, PPhrase
3.WORD divided into CLASSES: N, V, Adj, Adv; Pro, Art., Prep., Conj,...
4.MORPHEME divided into CLASSES: Morphs, Allomorphs,...
2.3.Ex: The effects of the accident are very serious.
Unit Boundary Example
marker

Clause: the effects of the accidents are very serious

Group: the effects of the accidents / are / very serious

Word: a space the /effects/ of/ the /accidents/ are/ very/ serious

Morpheme: + {EFFECT}+{PLURAL}, realized by the morphs EFFECT and –S

2.4.CLASSES OF UNITS
2.4.1.Classes of CLAUSES:
2.4.2.Classes of GROUPS: NG, VG, AdjG, AdvG, Prep.Phrase
2.4.3.Classes of WORDS: N, V, Adj, Adv, Prep, Pro, Art, Conj.
2.4.4.Classes of MORPHEMES: Derivational & Inflectional M.
2.4.1.CLAUSE divided into CLASSES: (p.12-15)
(i) Finite/Non-finite;
- I had a farm in Africa, at the foot of the Ngong hills.
- I , advised by your mother, warn you to go home quickly and not to
run destroying anything along the path.

(ii) Independent/Dependent
-They locked up the house.
- before they went on holiday.

(iii) Finite Dependent: including 7 kinds and 3 important sub-types of Nominal

clause.
C1.Circumstantial clauses:
-As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the TV.
C2.Relative clauses:
-Paul took one of the red apples that his wife had bought this morning.
C3.Nominal clauses function as S, O, C in clause structure, are
Embedded as constituents of the Superodinate clauses or Matrix clauses:
Superordinate (without embedded constituent): -He saw
vs Embedded Clauses: that the bottles were empty.

C3.1.-He saw that the bottles were empty. (THAT-clause)

C3.2.-What I don’t understand is why you have come here. (Nominal relative clause + dependent
wh-interrogative)

C3.3.- I’ll ask where the nearest Underground station is. (dependent wh-interrogative)

C3.4.- She said how comfortable it was. (dependent exclamative clause)

C4.Comparative clauses:-The results are much better than we expected.

C5.Abbreviated Clauses (with Subject+Finite operator alone and the rest of the
clause ellipted because it is known):
-I won’t, -can you, -must you?

C6.Supplementive units are not integrated into the main clause, as embedded
units are, but add supplementary information. They are subordinate but not
embedded. They are set off from the main clause by commas, or by a dash, and
have their own intonation contour:
-Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house exhibits many of the significant
contributions that Wright made to contemporary architecture.
-The large size doesn’t seem to be available. Which is a pity.

C7.Verbless clauses or Minor / Moodless Clauses (without Subject + Finite):

-Take traveller’s cheques abroad, whenever possible (=whenever it is possible).
-How about a nice glass of beer? - Hands off.
-Into the shelter, everybody! - Out of sight, out of mind.
2.5.UNIT STRUCTURE (p.16-17)
2.5.1.Syntactic element of Simple Sentences/Clauses:
Subject (S) : Jupiter is the largest planet. SPCs
Predicator (P): The election campaign has ended. SP
Direct Object (Od): Ted bought a new motorbike. SPOd
Indirect Object (Oi): They sent their friends gifts. SPOiOd
Prepositional Object (Oprep):
You must allow for price increases. SPOp
Subject Complement (Cs):
He is powerless to make any changes. SPCs
Object Complement (Co):
We consider the situation alarming. SPOdCo
Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc):
We flew to Moscow. SPCloc
Circumstantial Adjunct (A):
The news reached us on Tuesday. SPOdA
Stance Adjunct (A) /Disjunct (D) (Phụ ngữ tách):
Unfortunately, we could not reach York in time. ASPOdA
Connective Adjunct (A)/Conjunct (Conj) (Liên hợp):
However, other friends were there. ASPCs
2.5.2.SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF GROUPS: (p.17-19)
2.5.2.1.Nominal Groups/ Adjectival Groups/ Adverbial groups are composed of
3 primary elements or functions:
Ex: - those (D) beautiful (M) paintings (H) by Goya (M/Q)
- extremely (M) difficult (H) to translate (C)
- very (M) carefully (H) indeed (M/Q)
Head (h)
Determiner (d)
Premodifier/Modifier (m)
Postmodifier/Modifier (m) //Qualifier(q)
Complement (c) of N, Adj, a special case of post-head element, introduced
by a preposition or by a THAT-clause which is controlled by the head-word of
the group: good at chess.
2.5.2.2.Verbal Groups are composed of 3 primary elements:
Ex: - plays (V)
- has (O) played (V)
- will (O) be (X) playing (V)
- must (O) have (X) been (X) played (V)
- ring (V) up (O)
Verb (v)
Auxiliary (x)
Operator (o)

2.5.2.3.Prepositional Phrases are composed of 2 obligatory elements=

prepositional head (h) and complement (c) or an optional modifier (m) realized
by adverbs of degree (right, quite…):
Ex: - right (M) across (H) the road (C)
- quite (M) out of (H) practice
Head (h)
Complement (c)
Modifier (m)
UNIT 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION (p.21)
3.1.NEGATION: NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE STRUCTURES
 Negating and Questioning are encoded by Negation and by Interrogative.

3.1.1.NEGATIVE MEANS:
 English uses Finite operator to form Negative and Interrogative clause Structures.
Finite operator  5 types:
(1) Primary:
– Positive: BE, HAVE
– Negative: BE+NOT, HAVE+NOT, BEN’T (negative-interrogative)
(2) Modal:
– Positive: CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, MAY, MIGHT,
OUGHT …
– Negative: CAN’T, WON’T, SHAN’T, MAY NOT, OUGHTN’T…
(3) DO operator:
– Positive: DO
– Negative: DON’T
(4) Lexical-auxiliariesprimary verb functions as a normal operator: BE ABOUT TO,
BE SURE TO, BE GOING TO, / HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO
(5) Semi-modals: NEED/ NEEDN’T, DARE/ DAREN’T
3.2.CLAUSAL NEGATION (p.22)
3.2.1.In declarative clauses
(Subject+Finite Subject+Finite+NOT+Predicator)
(1) Negation is usually made with the particle NOT, by negating the Finite
operator IS NOT, CANNOT,…
(2) or a Non-finite verb in a dependent clause NOT WISHING to disturb them,
(3) DO operator DON’T be late,

3.2.2.INTEROGATIVE CLAUSES based on the inversion of the Operator with

the Subject of the clause
(S+F F+S?  Finite + NOT + Subject):
- Positive-interrogative: Is that man the Secretary?
- Negative-interrogative: Isn’t that man the Secretary?
2 types of Interrogative clauses:
- YES/NO type
- Wh-type
3.3.NO-NEGATION vs NOT-NEGATION+ANY (p.23)
1.Another way of negating a declarative clause is by using a non-verbal
“nuclear” negative word: NOBODY, NOTHING, NO, NEVER
2.In some cases: either NO-negation or NOT-negation+ANY:
- Have you any money? - I haven’t any money.
- I have no money.
3.In Interrogative clause:
- Declarative negative: - Nobody has called this afternoon.
- Interrogative negative: - Has nobody called this afternoon?
- Hasn’t anybody called this afternoon?
4.Emphatic negative meaning:
- She is no friend of mine. He is no actor.
3.4. ANY AND OTHER NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS (p.23-24)
1.Assertive forms (SOME, ALREADY, STILL, A LOT…) have Factual meanings,
typically in Positive declarative clauses but

2.Non-assertive forms ANY and Semi-negative words WITHOUT, HARDLY are

associated with Non-factual meanings in the sense of Non-fulfilment or
Potentiality, a feature of Negative, Interrogative, Conditional, and
Comparative clauses.

3.Stressed ANY used in Positive declarative clauses has a Non-factual meaning

= It doesn’t matter which/who:
Ex:
- Choose any of the questions in section One,
- Any house is better than no house…
ASSERTIVE NON-ASSERTIVE
- Determiners/pronouns: some (body…) any (body…)
- Adverbs: somewhere anywhere
sometimes, already, still, a lot ever, yet, any more, any longer, much
3.5.THE SCOPE OF NEGATION: (p.25)
SCOPE OF NEGATION means the semantic influence that a negative word
has on the rest of the clause that follows it:
- Some people don’t have any sense of humor. (SOME outside the scope but
ANY inside)
- He didn’t reply to any of my letters. (ANY inside the scope)
- He didn’t reply to some of my letters. (SOME outside the scope)
- She didn’t explain the problem clearly. (Manner adjunct CLEARLY inside)
- She clearly didn’t explain the proble. (Attitudinal adjunct CLEARLY outside)
- You can’t NOT go. (Each negative item has its own scope)
3.6.LOCAL NEGATION: (p.25)
1.Groups, words and Non-finite clauses can be negated by NOT, without the
entire finite clause being negated.
Ex:
- She was admitted into hospital not long ago.
- Not realizing the danger,, she walked in the dark towards the edge of the cliff….

2.Transferred negation: the negative element is displaced from its logical place in
the reported clause to negate the verb in the main clause:
Ex:
- I don’t think she was a Londoner =>I think she wasn’t a Londoner.
3.7.EXPANDING LINGUISTIC UNITS (p.26)
 CLAUSE COMBINING: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE (UNIT 31)
(p.249)
A.Grammatically, the sentence is the highest unit.
(p.249).Traditionally, sentences are said to be simple, compound
or complex.
 A simple sentence consists of one independent clause; as in
Sam bought the tickets.
 A compound sentence of two independent clauses in a
relationship of coordination. as in Sam bought the tickets and Sue
parked the car.
 A complex sentence consists minimally of one independent and
one or more dependent clauses in a relationship of dependency
as in Sam bought the tickets while Sue parked the car. (p.250)
B.1 In everyday uses of English, clause combinations can be more
complex. (p.249)
 Coordination and dependency typically interrelate in various
combinations which we refer to as complex sentences or clause
complexes. There is no grammatical limit to the number of
coordinated or subordinated clauses that can combine to form a
complex unit.

B.2 In conversation and certain types of written English such as

public notices, headlines and plays, units of a lower rank than
clause such as words and groups can be treated as independent
rhetorical units. It is useful to distinguish between clausal and
non-clausal material when analysing such sources.
C. Clauses are related syntactically in one of two ways: they are
either equivalent in status or non-equivalent.
1.COORDINATION (p.253-254)
 Coordination displays relationships of equivalence, while dependency
is based on non-equivalence. Coordination is the syntactic
relationship between units of equal status that conjoin to form a
larger unit. Each of the units is called a coordinate.
1.1.They are linked by the coordinators and, or and but.
 I don’t like it and I don’t want it.
 You can keep it or you can give it away.
 It’s a fine piece of furniture, but (it is) too large for this room.
1.2.Listing: In listing a series of elements, the explicit links may be
omitted, although the coordinator is typically retained between the last
two items, as in
 1 We have bought bread, ham, cheese, fruit and beer for the picnic.
 2 They would walk and talk and bathe and read and joke.
1.3.Correlative coordination of alternation is carried out by either . . . or and
negatively, by neither . . . nor. Not only . . . but also has an additive meaning.
(p.254)
 You should either accept his offer or (else) never see him again.
 Either we give the tickets back or (else) we drop everything and go.
 You should neither ask him for money nor accept it if he offers.
 Mary not only runs a kindergarten but also writes books on childcare
 Not only does Mary run a kindergarten but she also writes books on childcare.
 I was not satisfied with the result and neither /nor were they.
1.4.Clarifying connectives: (p.255)
Unlike coordinators, which have fixed positions at the clause boundary,
1.4.1.Cohesive connectives, such as instead or actually, are more
moveable. They can be used to reinforce the additive, contrastive or
replacive meanings of the coordinators.
 I have no intention of going, nor in fact did I ever promise to. (replacive)
 It’s an extremely simple device, but actually, it’s very effective. (upgrading)
 He doesn’t like bacon and also, he’s better without it. (additive)
1.4.2.Additive connectives include also, furthermore, in addition,
besides.
1.4.3.Upgrading connectives include in fact, as a matter of fact,
actually, indeed. Actually can indicate surprise; it signals that what
follows may be contrary to expectations.These features make it
especially useful with the adversative conjunction but, since contrast
and surprise are compatible. Yet shares these features of surprise and
contrast, and can be used as an alternative to but with surprisal and
concessive meanings:
 A four-year-old child was buried for three days under rubble, yet survived.
 He didn’t stay even an hour, but instead returned to London on the next
train. (replacive).
 She promised to keep in touch, but in fact, she never wrote or phoned us.
(upgrading)
1.5.UNLINKED COORDINATION (p.255)
Linking by means of and, or or but is the most usual pattern, but it is not
the only one. When no explicit formal link is present, but the
relationship is one of equivalence, we have unlinked coordination, as
long as a relation of relevance can be inferred. We interpret the
meanings of the conjoins by inferring the semantic connection between
them, based on our cultural knowledge. For instance, 1 relies on the
knowledge that a hallmark guarantees authenticity.
 1 It must be genuine; it has the hallmark.
 2 It’s like going out with a child; she stops dead and refuses to go any
further.
 3 He had been drinking very hard – only I knew how hard.
 4 You must make up a better excuse: no-one will believe that.
1.6.LOWER LEVEL COORDINATION (p.256)
It is not only finite clauses that can be coordinated. Other levels of
conjoined grammatical units include the following:
 non-finite subordinate clauses of time: While talking on their
cell-phones or smoking cigarettes
 complements of a preposition: fear of heights, crowds, open
spaces
 a non-clausal unit coordinated with a clausal one: One tidal
wave and half a fishing village is wiped out.
 This latter type of coordination is in fact a type of condition,
based on inference.
 This ability of most types of units to admit coordination, from
morphemes in a word to adjuncts in a clause, is one of the ways
of expanding on a topic while staying within the chosen structure
at any point in the discourse.
1.7.Free and fixed order of coordinates (p.256)
 In simple coordination, the coordinates can generally be reversed:
 (a) You can have eggs and bacon (b) You can have bacon and eggs
 (a) We can go by bus or by train. (b) We can go by train or by bus.

 However, there are a number of expressions in which the order is fixed

by convention, such as bread and butter, in and out, fast and furious,
now or never, over and above, sooner or later, time and again, up and
down, wait and see, young and old.

 There are also many others which, while not rigidly fixed, are
conventionally used in a preferred order: black or white, bride and
groom, common or garden, hope and pray, knife and fork, men and
women, salt and pepper.
1.8.Intermediate coordination-subordination (p.256)
 There is a kind of clausal coordination, that is intermediate between
that of the ‘pure’ coordinators – and, but and or – and subordination.
The secondary clause is introduced by one of the following:
 a conjunctive combination formed by and plus another item: and then,
and this, and there, and so, and yet, and still, and as a result
/consequently.
 and plus a connective such as at that time, soon afterwards, till then,
in that case.
 He criticises his colleagues and yet relies on them for support.
 She turned the corner and there stood Paul waiting for her.
 He had not taken the precaution of being vaccinated and as a result he got
malaria.
 SOME MORE EXAMPLES
1.COORDINATION: (p.26)
Ex:
- morphemes in a word: pro- and anti-terrorist
- heads of nominal groups: books, papers and magazines
- modifier in a NG: a beautiful and astonishing sight
- modifier in an AdjG: He says he is really and truly sorry for what happened.
- adjuncts in a clause: You can put in the application now or in a month’s time or
else next year
- independent clause: She got dressed quickly, had breakfast and went out to
work.
- dependent clause: I will take a holiday when the course is over and if I pass the
exam and also provided I can afford it.
2.SUBORDINATION: (p.27)
Ex:
- modifier in a NG: A very lovable, (if rather dirty), small boy
- Cs in a clause: He is quite brilliant (though totally unreliable).
- adjuncts in a clause: We arrived (late (though not too late)) for the wedding.
- dependent clauses: I’ll let you borrow the CDs (as soon as I’ve finished)
[provided you bring them back[when I need them]].
3.EMBEDDING: (p.27)
Ex:
- Clause at S: [That he left so abruptly] doesn’t surprise me.
- Clause at Od: I don’t know [why he left so abruptly]
- Clause at C in a PP: I’m pleased about [Jane winning a prize]
- Clause at M in NG: Thanks for the card [you sent me]
- Clause at A: [After they had signed the contract] they went off to celebrate.
- Group in group: [[[Tom’s]sister’s] husband’s] mother.