UTKARSH SHUKLA

M.Sc HORTICULTURE

Floriculture and Landscape

Architecture

Student ID- 5347

A Study On Cellular Nucleus

College of Horticulture

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel university of agriculture

and technology, Meerut
 Contents
TOPIC
Definition
Shape, size and number of Nucleus
Components of the nucleus
Nuclear Ultrastructure
Nuclear membrane
Nuclear pores
Nuclear Lamina
Nucleoplasm
Functions of Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
Chromosomes
Function of Nucleus
  A nucleus is a double-membraned eukaryotic cell organelle that
DEFINITION contains the genetic material.
 Found in It contains most of the cell’s genetic material as multiple long

linear DNA , organized molecules in complex with a large variety of

proteins , such as histones chromosomes The genes, to form within
these chromosomes are the cell’s nuclear genome .
 The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes

and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression—

the nucleus is therefore the control center of the cell.
 By housing the cell’s genome, the nucleus serves both as the
repository of genetic information and as the cell’s control center.
 • Nuclei 1st discovered and named by Robert Brown

 • Role of nucleus 1st demonestrated by Max Hammerling

 Diagram of the
nucleus showing the
ribosome-studded
outer nuclear
membrane, nuclear
pores, DNA
(complexed as
chromatin), and the
nucleolus.
 SHAPE, SIZE AND NUMBER OF THE NUCLEUS
Nuclei per cell
 Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus(osteoclasts), but some have no
nuclei, while others have several.
 Multinucleated cells- Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally
multinucleated cells.
 Anucleated cells-- mammalian red blood cell
 The size of the nucleus depends on the size of the cell it is contained in, with a nucleus typically occupying about 8% of
the total cell volume.. The nucleus is the largest organelle in animal cells.
 Nuclear shapes can vary rather widely, with doubly magic nuclei preferring
spherical symmetry. Some nuclei execute volume-preserving oscillations about
spherical shape, while others possess permanent spheroidal deformations.
 Mostly the shape of the nucleus is spherical or oblong.
 The location of the nucleus is normally in the center of the cell, but it can also be found in peripheral
locations. 
 Components The following points highlight the five main
of the nucleus components of the nucleus. The components are:

1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nuclear Sap or Nucleoplasm
3. Nucleolus
4. Chromatic Reticulum
5. Chromosomes.

Other nuclear bodies

Structure Structure
name diameter
Cajal bodies 0.2–2.0 µm
Clastosomes 0.2-0.5 µm
PIKA 5 µm
PML bodies 0.2–1.0 µm
Paraspeckles 0.5–1.0 µm
Speckles 20–25 nm
NUCLEAR ULTRASTRUCTURE
 Nuclear Ultrastructure

1. There are two nuclear compartments: nuclear envelope and nucleoplasm.

2. Nuclear envelope is the peripheral part of the nucleus that separates the interior of the nucleus, known as
nucleoplasm, from the cytoplasm, and consists of an outer membrane, an inner membrane and a perinuclear
space (between both membranes).
3. Nucleoplasm-cytoplasm communication is regulated by the nuclear pore complexes, which are molecular
scaffolds inserted in the nuclear envelope.
4. The nuclear lamina is a layer of proteins lining the inner surface of the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope,
which provides mechanical support to the nucleus.
5. The cell nucleus contains all of the cell’s genome, except for the small amount of mitochondrial DNA and, in
plant cells, plastid DNA.
6. Nuclear DNA is organized as multiple long linear molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as
histones, to form chromosomes.
7. The genes within these chromosomes are structured in such a way to promote cell function.
 Nuclear Ultrastructure (continued..)

8. Because the nuclear envelope is impermeable to large molecules,

nuclear pores are required to regulate nuclear transport of molecules
across the envelope.

9. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel

through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier

proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions.

 Nuclear Membrane and Pores

A cross section of a nuclear pore on the surface of NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

the nuclear envelope (1). Other diagram labels
show (2) the outer ring, (3) spokes, (4) basket, and
(5) filaments
 Nuclear Envelope

The nuclear envelope consists of two membranes, an inner and an outer nuclear membrane.

The membranes are separated by a fluid-filled space called the perinuclear cisterna that measures about 20
to 40 nanometers.
Like other plant cell membranes, the nuclear envelope consists of two bilayers, both made of phospholipids,
in which numerous proteins are embedded.
Together, these membranes serve to separate the cell’s genetic material from the rest of the cell contents, and
allow the nucleus to maintain an environment distinct from the rest of the cell.
The inner membrane surrounds the nuclear content, providing its defining edge.
Embedded within the inner membrane, various proteins bind the intermediate filaments that give the
nucleus its structure.
The outer membrane encloses the inner membrane, and is continuous with the adjacent endoplasmic
reticulum membrane. As part of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, the outer nuclear membrane is
studded with ribosomes that are actively translating proteins across membrane.
The space between the two membranes, called the “Perinuclear Space”, is continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum lumen.
Functions of Nuclear Envelope

1. The nuclear envelope surrounds the fluid portion of the nucleus, called the nucleoplasm, in all plant cells.
2. The ribosomes on the outer surface of the envelope serve as sites for protein synthesis in addition to ribosomes
located in the cytoplasm.
3. The envelope is selectively permeable and therefore regulates the passage of materials and energy between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
4. The envelope allows certain cell activities to be localized within the nucleus or outside in the cytoplasm. It also
permits many different activities to go on simultaneously within and outside of the nucleus.
5. Like other membranes of the plant cell, the nuclear envelope membranes serve as important work surfaces for
many chemical reactions in plants that are carried out by enzymes bound to the membranes
6. They are also important for the movement and use of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other
chemical compounds in plant cells after photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and other biochemical activities have
occurred.
 Nuclear Pores

1. The nuclear envelope is punctured by thousands of nuclear pores, large hollow

protein complexes about 100 nm across, with an inner channel about 40 nm wide.
They link the inner and outer nuclear membrane.They link the inner and outer
nuclear membranes.
2. The pores are about 60–80 million daltons in molecular weight and 100 nm in total
diameter; consist of around 50 (in yeast) to several hundred proteins (in vertebrates).
3. however, the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide, due
to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore.
4. Pores contains an eightfold-symmetric ring-shaped structure at a position where the
inner and outer membranes fuse. Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear
basket that extends into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that
reach into the cytoplasm. Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear
transport proteins.
 Nuclear Lamina

The nuclear lamina is a layer of specific proteins, called lamins, attached to

inside membrane of the nuclear envelope. The layer consists of thin filaments
(intermediate filaments) that are 30 to 40 nanometers thick.
Each filament is a polymer of lamin. There are two types of lamin: A-type lamins
are inside, next to the nucleoplasm, and B-type lamins are near the inner part of
the nuclear membrane.
1. The nuclear lamina surrounds the nucleus, except at the nuclear pores. The
lamina serves as a skeletal framework for the nucleus. It may be involved in
the functional organization of the nucleus and may also play an important
role in the breakdown and reassembly of the nuclear envelope during
mitosis.
 NUCLEOPLASM

1. The nucleoplasm is the protoplasm contained within the plant cell nucleus and can best be
described as the fluid-filled matrix that is contained within the nuclear membrane.
2. The term nucleoplasm was first coin by a Belgian Cytologist EDOUARD VAN BENEDON
Where as karyoplasm was coined by Walther Flemming.
3. The nucleoplasm is a distinct entity of the plant cell nucleus, bounded, protected, and
separated from the cytoplasm by the double-membrane nuclear envelope.
4. Connections between the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm are closely regulated by nuclear
pores that penetrate the nuclear envelope at intervals.
5. Interiorly, these nuclear pores connect to a complex of nucleoplasmic channels that lead
into the pores and serve simultaneously to direct and regulate exchange of materials
between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF A 6. The nucleoplasm consists of a viscous mix of water, in which various substances and
NUCLEUS SHOWING structures are dissolved or carried, and an underlying intranuclear ultrastructure.
NUCLEOPLASM 7. Nucleoplasm is a less viscous fluid than cytoplasm.
8. Substances in the nucleoplasm include ions, enzymes, minerals, and some organic
molecules and macromolecules.
9. The nucleoplasm is especially rich in protein enzymes and protein constituents involved in
the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and the various types of ribonucleic acid
(RNA), the precursor molecules of RNA, and the nucleotides from which they are
assembled.
 NUCLEOPLASM (Continued..)

 Components Of Nucleoplasm
The different components of nucleoplasm include:
Nucleolus
It is the major production centre within the nucleus. The ribosomal subunits are produced here and pushed
into the rest of the nucleus where they are processed into ribosomes. It is the largest organelle in the
nucleus and the organisms will not be able to survive without the nucleolus.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are also found in the nucleoplasm. They are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. All the
nucleotides consist of a base, a phosphate group, and deoxyribose sugar.
Chromatin
It is a complex of DNA, RNA and proteins that helps in the DNA folding. It prevents the entangling of the
strings during DNA folding and improves the efficiency of replication. They are also associated with the
processes of gene repression, gene expression and transcription.
 Continued..NUCLEOPLASM

Nuclear Matrix
It maintains the structure of the nucleus and is found all over the
nucleus. It also helps in organizing the genetic material of the cells.
Enzymes
Nucleoplasm comprises of various enzymes that catalyze the reactions
occurring in the nucleus. DNA polymerase is the most important enzyme
found in the nucleoplasm. Other enzymes present in the nucleoplasm
include hexokinase, P-fructokinase, and 6-P-gluconic dehydrogenase.
 Function of the Nucleoplasm

 The main function of the nucleus is to store and compact the

majority of the human genome, but a major function for proteins
that localize to the nucleoplasm is also also to participate in and
regulate DNA-dependent functions and cellular processes, such
as transcription, RNA splicing, RNP assembly, DNA repair, and
replication.
 NUCLEOLUS

Wagner and Valentin were the first to describe the nucleolus in two independent
publications in the 1830.
 The nucleolus is a nuclear sub-compartment that varies in size and number depending
on cell type.
 The structure of nucleoli
Substructures:
Nucleoli
Nucleolii fibrillar center
Nucleoli rim
The nucleoli are non-membrane enclosed, highly conserved, sub-organelles within the nucleus. They are formed
around nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) consisting of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and are structurally organized
into three different sub regions; the fibrillar center (FC), the dense fibrillar component (DFC) and the granular
component (GC).
 Function of Nucloli

The main function of the nucleolus is to synthesize and

assemble ribosomes for later transport to the cytoplasm,
where translation takes place. The nucleolus is also involved in
cell cycle regulation and cellular stress responses.

Diagram of a replicated and
condensed metaphase eukaryotic
chromosome. (1) Chromatid – one of
the two identical parts of the
chromosome after S phase. (2)
Centromere – the point where the two
chromatids touch. (3) Short arm (p).
(4) Long arm (q).
CHROMOSOME
1. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρ ῶμα (chroma,
“colour”) and σῶμα (soma, “body”), describing their strong staining by
particular dyes.[9] The term was coined by the German anatomist
Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, referring to the term chromatin, which
was introduced by Walther Flemming, the discoverer of cell division.
2. Karl Nägeli in 1842, first observed the rod-like structure present in
the nucleus of the plant cell.
3. W. Waldeyer in 1888 coined the term ‘chromosome’.
4. A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic
material of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include
packaging proteins called histones which, aided by chaperone
proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its
integrity.
5. These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure,
which plays a significant role in transcriptional regulation.
6. Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only
during the metaphase of cell division
 Functions of Chromosomes

The main function of chromosomes is to carry the genetic material from one generation
to another
Chromosomes play an important role and act as a guiding force in the growth,
reproduction, repair and regeneration process, that is important for their survival
Chromosomes protect the DNA from getting tangled and damaged
Histone and non-histone proteins help in the regulation of gene expression
Spindle fibres attached to centromere help in the movement of the chromosome during
cell division
 Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that precisely code for multiple

proteins present in the body

 FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS

It contains the cell’s hereditary information and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.
The nucleus has been clearly explained as a membrane-bound structure that comprises the
genetic material of a cell.
It is not just a storage compartment for DNA, but also happens to be the home of some
important cellular processes.
First and foremost, it is possible to duplicate one’s DNA in the nucleus. This process has
been named DNA Replication and produces an identical copy of the DNA.
Producing two identical copies of the body or host is the first step in cell division, where
every new cell will get its own set of instructions.
Secondly, the nucleus is the site of transcription. Transcription creates different types of
RNA from DNA. Transcription would be a lot like creating copies of individual pages of the
human body’s instructions which may be moved out and read by the rest of the cell.
1. The central rule of biology states that DNA is copied into RNA, and then proteins.
 FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS (continued)
Cell compartmentalization
Eucaryotic cells contain intracellular membranes that enclose nearly half
the cell’s total volume in separate intracellular compartments called
organelles. The main types of membrane-enclosed organelles present in all
eucaryotic cells are the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, nucleus,
mitochondria, lysosomes, endosomes, and peroxisomes; plant cells also
contain plastids, such as chloroplasts. The compartmentalization allows the
cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA.
Replication- The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene
expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle. It has
been found that replication happens in a localised way in the cell nucleus.
 Functions of the Nucleus
Gene expression- Since the nucleus is the site of transcription, it also contains a variety
of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the
process, which unwind the double-stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it, RNA
polymerases, which bind to the DNA promoter to synthesize the growing RNA molecule,
topoisomerases, which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA, helping it wind and
unwind, as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression.
Processing of pre-mRNA- Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as
primary transcripts or pre-mRNA. They must undergo post-transcriptional
modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasmNewly synthesized
mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre-mRNA. They must undergo
post-transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the
cytoplasm.