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BLOOD

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Blood
the “river of life” that surges within us. It is the
only fluid tissue in the body. It is complex
connective tissue in which living blood cells, the
formed elements are suspended in a nonliving
fluid matrix called plasma.

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Functions of Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste
products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation
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Composition of Blood 1

Plasma:
• 55% of total blood
• pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells
• 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other

Formed Elements:
• 45% of total blood
• cells and cell fragments
• erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes
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Plasma Proteins
Albumin:
• 58% of plasma proteins
• helps maintain water balance
Globulins:
• 38% of plasma proteins
• helps immune system
Fibrinogen:
• 4% of plasma proteins
• aids in clot formation
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Composition of Blood 2

Figure 11.1
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Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (RBC)
Disk-shaped with thick
edges
Nucleus is lost during
development
Live for 120 days
Function:
transport O2 to tissues

Figure 11.3
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(a) ©National Cancer Institute/Science Source
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Homeostatic Imbalance: Decrease RBC – 17

anemia; increase RBC – polycythemia

Leukocytosis – a total WBC count above

normal; generally indicates bacterial or viral
infection
Leukopenia – abnormally low WBC; commonly
caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids
and anticancer agents.
H. Imbalance: Leukemia –bone marrow
becomes cancerous and huge numbers of WBC
are turned out rapidly but immature and incapable
of carrying out their functions.
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Hemoglobin – an iron-bearing protein, transport

the bulk of the oxygen that is carried in the
blood. Male 13-18 g/ml; Female 12-16 g/ml

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Hemoglobin 1

Main component of erythrocytes

Transports O2
Each globin protein is attached to a heme
molecule
Each heme contains one iron atom
O2 binds to iron
Oxyhemoglobin:
• hemoglobin with an O2 attached
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Hemoglobin 2

Figure 11.4
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Production of Erythrocytes
1. Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to
increase production of erythropoietin.
2. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to
produce more erythrocytes.
3. Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in
blood O2 levels.

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Red Blood Cell Production

Figure 11.5
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 Fate of Old Erythrocytes and 24

Hemoglobin
Old red blood cells are removed from blood by
macrophages in spleen and liver
Hemoglobin is broken down
Globin is broken down into amino acids
Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled
Heme is converted to bilirubin
Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released into
small intestine as part of bile
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Hemoglobin Breakdown

Figure 11.6
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Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBC)
Lack hemoglobin
Larger than erythrocytes
Contain a nucleus
Functions:
• fight infections
• remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

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Classification of WBC: 27

Granulocytes – granule containing WBCs

1. Neutrophils – most numerous WBC, phagocytes
2. Eosinophils – increases rapidly during allergies and
infections by parasitic worms ingested in food or
entering via the skin
3. Basophils – rarest of the WBCs, contain large
histamine-containing granules
Agranulocytes:
2. Lymphocytes – play an important role in immune
response, second most numerous leukocytes
2. Monocytes – largest of the WBCs; when they
migrate into the tissues they become macrophages
with huge appetite
* Never let monkey eat banana*
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Types of Leukocytes 1

Granulocytes: contain specific granules and

include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
1. Neutrophils:
• most common
• remain in blood for 10 to 12 hours then move to
tissues
• phagocytes

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Types of Leukocytes 2

2. Eosinophils:
• reduce inflammation
• destroy parasites

3. Basophils:
• least common
• release histamine and heparin

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Types of Leukocytes 3

Agranulocytes: no specific granules

1. Monocytes:
• largest sized white blood cells
• produce macrophages

2. Lymphocytes:
• immune response
• several different types (T cells and B cells)
• lead to production of antibodies
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Types of White Blood Cells

Figure 11.8
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(a–e) ©Victor Eroschenko
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White Blood Cell Disorders

Leukopenia:
• low white blood cell count
• caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors,
viral infections
Leukocytosis:
• high white blood cell count
• caused by infections and leukemia

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Platelets
Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane.
They are produced in the red bone marrow from
large cells called megakaryocytes.
Small fragments break off from the megakaryocytes
and enter the blood as platelets.
Platelets play an important role in preventing blood
loss.
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Platelets – not cells in strict sense; fragments of 35

bizzare multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes.

RBC – life span is 100 to 120 days; reticulocyte is

young RBC and after 3-5 days becomes mature
RBC.
Erythropoietin – controls erythrocyte production

Hemostatis – stoppage of bleeding

1. Vascular spasm occurs – vasoconstriction of
blood vessels occurs, decreasing blood loss until
clotting can occur
2. Platelet plug forms – platelets becomes sticky and
cling to the damage site
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3. Coagulation event occur – formation of fibrin 36

which forms meshwork to trap RBCs and form

the basis of the clot

H. Imbalance:
Thrombus
Embolus
Thrombocytopenia – insufficient number of
circulating platelet
Petechiae – small purplish blotches
Hemophilia – different hereditary bleeding
disorders

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Blood Loss
When blood vessels are damaged, blood can
leak into other tissues and disrupt normal
function.
Blood that is lost must be replaced by
production of new blood or by a transfusion.

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Preventing Blood Loss

1. Vascular spasm:
• temporary constriction of blood vessel

2. Platelet plugs:
• can seal up small breaks in blood vessels

3. Blood clotting (coagulation)

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Vascular Spasm
Vascular spasm is an immediate but temporary
constriction of a blood vessel that results when
smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel
contracts.
This constriction can close small vessels completely
and stop the flow of blood through them.
Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals released
by cells of the damaged blood vessel wall and by
platelets.

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Platelet Plug Formation 1

A platelet plug is very important in maintaining the

integrity of the damaged blood vessels.
The formation of a platelet plug can be described as
a series of steps, but in actuality many of these
steps occur at the same time.
Platelet adhesion occurs first, when platelets stick
to the exposed collagen in the damaged blood
vessel wall.
After platelets adhere to collagen, they become
activated, change shape, and release chemicals.
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Platelet Plug Formation 2

In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen forms bridges

between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous
platelets, resulting in a platelet plug.

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Platelet Plug Formation 3

Figure 11.9
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Blood Clotting
Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel
Clot:
• network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap
blood cells and fluid
• depends on clotting factors
Clotting factors:
• proteins in plasma
• only activated following injury
• made in liver
• require vitamin K
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Steps in Clot Formation

1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting
factors to become activated due to exposed conn.
tissue or release of thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and acts
upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active form
fibrin
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)

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Clot Formation

Figure 11.10
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Clot Formation Control

Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread
throughout the body
Anticoagulants:
• prevent clots from forming
• Example - heparin and antithrombin

Injury causes enough clotting factors to be

activated that anticoagulants can’t work in that
particular area of the body

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Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis

Clot retraction:
• condensing of clot
• serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
• helps enhance healing

Fibrinolysis:
• process of dissolving clot
• plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot
(fibrin)
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Fibrinolysis

Figure 11.11
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Blood Grouping
Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion
Transfusion reactions/Agglutination:
• clumping of blood cells (bad)
Antigens:
• molecules on surface of erythrocytes
Antibodies:
• proteins in plasma
Blood groups:
• named according to antigen (ABO)
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Antigen – a substance that the body recognizes as 50

foreign; it stimulates the immune system to release

antibodies

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ABO Blood Groups 1

In the ABO blood group system, there are two types

of antigens that may appear on the surface of the
red blood cells, type A antigen and type B antigen.
Type A blood has type A antigens, type B blood has
type B antigens, and type AB blood has both types
of antigens.
Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens.
The types of antigens found on the surface of the
red blood cells are genetically determined.
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ABO Blood Groups 2

Antibodies against the antigens are usually

present in the plasma of blood.
Plasma from type A blood contains anti-B
antibodies, which act against type B antigens;
plasma from type B blood contains anti-A
antibodies, which act against type A antigens.
Type AB blood plasma has neither type of
antibody, and type O blood plasma has both
anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
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ABO Blood Groups 3

In Caucasians in the United States, the

distribution is type O, 47%; type A, 41%; type B,
9%; and type AB, 3%.
Among African-Americans, the distribution is
type O, 46%; type A, 27%; type B, 20%; and type
AB, 7%.

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ABO Blood Groups

Figure 11.12
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Agglutination Reaction

Figure 11.13
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According to ABO Blood Types

O are universal donors because they have no
antigens
Type A can receive A and O blood
Type B can receive B and O blood
Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood
Type O can only receive O blood

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Rh Blood Group
Rh positive means you have Rh antigens
95 to 85% of the population is Rh+
Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is
exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from
mother to fetus

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Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy
If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the mother can
be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks
through placenta and mixes with mother’s blood.
First time this occurs mother’s blood produces
antibodies against antigens.
Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.

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Hemolytic Disease of Newborn 1

This condition
• occurs when mother produces anti-Rh antibodies
that cross placenta and agglutination and hemolysis
of fetal erythrocytes occurs
• can be fatal to fetus
• prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM which
contains antibodies against Rh antigens

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Hemolytic Disease of Newborn 2

Figure 11.14
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Diagnostic Blood Tests

Complete blood count:
• provides information such as RBC count,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
Hematocrit:
• % of total blood volume composed of RBC

Hemoglobin:
• determines amount of hemoglobin
• indicate anemia
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Hematocrit

Figure 11.15
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Diagnostic Blood Tests 2

Prothrombin time:
• time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9 to 12 sec.)

White blood cell count:

• total number of white blood cells

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Diagnostic Blood Tests 3

White blood cell differential count:

• Determines the % of each 5 kinds of leukocytes
• neutrophils: 60 to 70%
• lymphocytes: 20 to 25%
• monocytes: 3 to 8%
• eosinophils: 2 to 4%
• basophils: 0.5 to 1%

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