Strategy and Innovation 1:

Strategic Inertia
Dominant Logic and
Strategic Drift
Strategy and Innovation 1:

Dr. David Webb

 Strategy and Innovation

• Gaining competitive advantage has been the dominant theme of the

topics covered so far (choice/fit or unique competencies)
• While useful tools, they are criticised as static views of an industry
• Increasing complexity and turbulence mean barriers to entry and
switching are being relentlessly attacked – positions and
competencies can quickly lose relevance or uniqueness
• Even the dynamic capabilities perspective is questioned when
considering transformational routines (ability to add and let go of old
competencies that were the basis of the firms success).
• Increasingly it is argued that long-term success depends on ability to
create and capture new markets ……. But few achieve it, despite
payoff, and many firms ultimately fail and disappear.

Source: Barney (1991), Porter (1996) , Leavy and McKiernan (2009), Kim and Mauborgne (2005)
‘It’s a sobering thought that only 1 firm out of the
Dow Jones index actually made it through from
the beginning to the end of the 20th century’
Bessant (2003)
 Blockbuster 2004
• 9000 Stores
• 60k employees
• $5.9bn earnings

In 2010
Blockbuster filed
for bankruptcy
 Blockbuster 2004
• 9000 Stores
• 60k employees
• $5.9bn earnings

In 2010
failBlockbuster
Rare for large firms to because filed
of magnitude of innovation or
for bankruptcy
incompetent management
 Rigidities and Path Dependency
In seeking advantage firms become locked in a self reinforcing pattern
of development and historic choices

Objects
Technology
e.g. docs

Value People’s
Behaviour
Network Strategic Choices

Standards, Training &

rules, education
language
 Rigidities and Path Dependency
Behaviours contribute to and are shaped by industry and societal
norms, expectations and institutions = “dominant logic”

Regulators Shareholders
Analysts
Objects
Technology
e.g. docs
Professional
Bodies
Value People’s
Behaviour
Network Strategic Choices
Industry
Norms Standards, Training &
rules, education
language
Media

Unions Non-Execs

The DNA of the firm, industry or even society

 Rigidities and Path Dependency
Behaviours contribute to and are shaped by industry and societal
norms, expectations and institutions = “dominant logic”

Regulators Shareholders
Analysts
Objects
Technology
e.g. docs
Professional
Bodies
Value People’s
Behaviour
Network Strategic Choices
Industry
Norms Standards, Training &
rules, education
language
Media

Unions Lock
Non-Execs
In

“Mental Traps undermine adoption market creating strategies”

 Strategic Drift
Strategic drift is the tendency for strategies to develop incrementally but
fail to keep pace with a changing environment and customer needs.

Environmental
change

Strategic
change

Customers
may be equally
trapped and
not realise
needs can be Time
better served Source: Based on Johnson et al (2011)
 Strategy and Innovation debate

Incumbents Barriers to great

Vs
can radically to respond fast
change enough

• Cognitive Limits
• Blue Ocean Strategy
• Disruptive Innovation
• Co-Creation
• Open Innovation
Strategy and Innovation 1:
Blue Ocean Strategy
Creating New Market
Space
 Gainin Competitive Advantage

Constant

Complex System of
Unique Resource(s)
Activities aligned to
not easily obtained
market needs

Resource Activity
Blue Ocean
Ability to recognise
On going series of
change and move
advantages
more quickly than
others

Dynamic
Webb (2018)
 Blue Ocean Strategy

“Step change in way think about strategy of a firm”

“Instead of searching within the conventional

boundaries of industry competition, look methodically
across those boundaries to find unoccupied territory
that represents real value innovation”

Challenge assumption that

Industry boundaries are set
….so appeal to all customers
Source: Kim and Mauborgne (1997)

Sustainable Advantage from making Competition Irrelevant

 Blue Ocean Strategy Assumptions

Can you create new space/ways of competing rather than grinding it out
with the competition?
 Blue Ocean Strategy Assumptions

Red Oceans:
• Existing firms fight for market
share
• Assumes market structures
are fixed
• Dividing demand to try to
defend position

Market Competing

Can you create new space/ways of competing rather than grinding it out
with the competition?
 Blue Ocean Strategy Assumptions

Red Oceans: Blue Ocean:

• Existing firms fight for market
share
• Assumes market structures
are fixed
• Dividing demand to try to
defend position
• Re-defines market
• Reconstruction of value - new
market space
• Focus on value needed by all
customers
• No unattractive industries

Market Competing Market Creating

Can you create new space/ways of competing rather than grinding it out
with the competition?
 Breaking Industry Boundaries

Challenging assumptions underpinning source of value and source

of competitive advantage:

Conventional Logic Value Innovation Logic

(Red Ocean) (Blue Ocean)
Industry Industry conditions are given Industry conditions can be
Assumptions shaped
Strategic Focus Beat the competition Avoid the competition
Customers Retain, expand and segment Search for commonality
your customers (Choose)
Resources and Leverage existing resources Find new resources and
Capabilities and capabilities capabilities
Product/Service Determined by Look beyond traditional
Offering market/industry structure boundaries

Source: Kim and Mauborgne (1997)

 Breaking Industry Boundaries

Cost
• Rejects “dogma” of differentiation
vs low cost trade off
• Key is REALLY understanding what
Value
Innovation
customers value and what they
don’t
• ..and taking new perspectives on
the market space and its
boundaries
Buyer Value

Source: Kim and Mauborgne (1997)

Focus on great “Strategic Moves”

 Factors of Competition

1. How does the Extended 2. What are

Set of
Industry currently Strategic T Customer “pain
hemes
compete? points”?
Look purely
managers from Look purely
perspectiv
e Factors of Customer from
perspectiv
e
Competition

t o the
an ges of
3. What Strategic Ch ctors
fa
e t ition
Moves - can we com
p
make?

Focus on great “Strategic Moves”

 Strategy Canvas

Focus is on what is changing to create new space

High

Target
Amount of Factor

Value
Curve

“As Is”
Value
Low Curve

Factors of Competition
 The Four Actions Framework
Really
understand Reduce
what customers
value and align
Which factors
should be reduced well ERIC!
below the industry standard?

A New
Eliminate Value Create
Which of the
Proposition Which factors should
factors that the be created that the industry
industry takes for has never offered?
granted should be
eliminated?

Increase
Which factors
should be raised well Strategic Moves
above the industry standard?
that change the
Kim and Mauborgne 2005 Value Proposition
 Strategy Canvas: The Value Curve
Eliminate Reduce Raise Create
High

Quality Circuses

Small Regional Circuses

Low
s

as ow
er

ns
ow
ice

ng nd
m nd
rm

en h
sio
nc isle
Sh

er
ar le s

da ls a
Pr

Hu n a
fo

or
es
er

Co A
al

Fu

il
rP

Tr
im

lti
Mu
An
a
St

Competitive Factors
Kim and Mauborgne 2005
 26
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hF8YZfz7j8
 Cirque Du Soleil: ERIC
Reduce
Fun and humor
Thrill and danger
“Take the kids” mind set

Eliminate Create
Star performers A New Theme
Animal shows Value Refined environment
Aisle concession sales Proposition Multiple productions
Multiple show arenas Artistic music and dance

Increase

Unique venue

Kim and Mauborgne 2005

 Low
High
Pr
ice
St
a rP
er
fo
rm
er
s

Kim and Mauborgne 2005

An
im
al
Sh
ow
s
Co A
nc isle
es
sio
Eliminate

ns
Mu
Quality Circuses

lti
p
ar le s
en h
as ow Small Regional Circuses

Fu
Hu n a
m nd
or
Tr
il
Reduce

da ls a
ng nd
er

Un

Competitive Factors
Ve ique
nu
e
Raise

Re Th
en in f em
vir ed e
on W
Mu m atc
en hi
lt i
pl t ng
eP
ro
Blue Ocean
Cirque du Soleil:The Value Curve

du
cti
Create

Ar on
s
Cirque du Soleil

an tist
d ic
da m
nc us
e ic
Created Highly Profitable Blue Ocean Space

• Around 180 million people have

seen a performance
• Now employs c.5000 staff (1500 in
its Montreal HQ)
• Simultaneously operates around
20 shows around the world
• Generates almost $1bn a year in
revenues and an estimated
$250m in profit
• Emerging competitors?
 Blue Ocean Process is the Core

Six Paths New Value Curves

Value Curve

Immersive

Offering Level versus

Market Expectations
Very high

High

Interviews and Average

mapping “as is” Very low

Low

value curve Non

existent
-

Key Elements

Winning
Market Ideas through Selecting and validating
Exploration structured winning Ideas
… and the ‘Buyer Utility Grid’ was used as a further filter to
brainstorming
produce the final short list of Value Propositions
Buyer experience cycle

Brand Site Filling Shop Payment Other

choice choice up services

U Customer

Value Curve Fair

productivity
T
L
I Simplicity
T
Y Convenience

L
E
V
E
R
Risk

Fun / image And

Validation and Testing
Environmental
S friendliness

Quantifying
www.emergenceconsulting.com 40
© 2001 Emergence Con sult ing.
All rights reserved .

Buyer Utility Map

ERIC Grid

30
 Blue Ocean Critique

• There are criticisms that the examples show its application after
the events took place (an exception is Nintendo Wii)

• More robust criticism originates from new research that show:

– Existing competitive market spaces offer more opportunities than
given credit (on average it takes 15 years for a new advantage to
be eroded)

– Being the pioneer in any new market frequently does not deliver
success. Value is more often realised by “fast followers”

– Blue oceans will at some point become red – often quickly unless
imitation is difficult

Firms still fail despite having tools to recognise and respond to change
 Conclusion

• Firms are bound by rigidities and path dependencies that mean

they can drift away from providing the value the market requires.
This can lead to the failure
• Blue Ocean strategy challenges firms to look outside current
industry boundaries and create new market space (blue ocean)
that makes the competition irrelevant
• Value Innovation process provides a set of frameworks to aid
managers in recognising and and occupying the new spaces (e.g.
ERIC grid, Value Curves)

• Criticisms of this perspective suggest it is a useful new tool for our

toolbox rather than a panacea to solve all your strategy needs
Strategy and Innovation 1:
Blue Ocean Application
CitizenM Hotels
 Gainin Competitive Advantage

Constant

Complex System of
Unique Resource(s)
Activities aligned to
not easily obtained
market needs

Resource Activity
Blue Ocean
Ability to recognise
On going series of
change and move
advantages
more quickly than
others

Dynamic
Webb (2018)
 Blue Ocean Strategy

“Instead of searching within the conventional boundaries

of industry competition, look methodically across those
boundaries to find unoccupied territory that represents
real value innovation”
Appeal to customers and non-
customers

Research suggested there

weren’t great companies instead
Source: Kim and Mauborgne (1997) there were great strategic moves

Focus on great “Strategic Moves”

 Low
High
Pr
ice
St
a rP
er
fo
rm
er
s

Kim and Mauborgne 2005

An
im
al
Sh
ow
s
Co A
nc isle
es
sio
Eliminate

ns
Mu
Quality Circuses

lti
p
ar le s
en h
as ow Small Regional Circuses

Fu
Hu n a
m nd
or
Tr
il
Reduce

da ls a
ng nd
er

Un

Competitive Factors
Ve ique
nu
e
Raise

Re Th
en in f em
vir ed e
on W
Mu m atc
en hi
lt i
pl t ng
eP
ro
Blue Ocean

du
Strategy Canvas: Cirque du Soleil

cti
Create

Ar on
s
Cirque du Soleil

an tist
d ic
da m
nc us
e ic
 Systematic Process is the Core

Six Paths New Value Curves

Value Curve

Immersive

Offering Level versus

Market Expectations
Very high

High

Interviews and Average

mapping “as is” Very low

Low

value curve Non

existent
-

Key Elements

Winning
Market Ideas through Selecting and validating
Exploration structured winning Ideas
… and the ‘Buyer Utility Grid’ was used as a further filter to
brainstorming
produce the final short list of Value Propositions
Buyer experience cycle

Brand Site Filling Shop Payment Other

choice choice up services

U Customer

Value Curve Fair

productivity
T
L
I Simplicity
T
Y Convenience

L
E
V
E
R
Risk

Fun / image And

Validation and Testing
Environmental
S friendliness

Quantifying
www.emergenceconsulting.com 40
© 2001 Emergence Con sult ing.
All rights reserved .

Buyer Utility Map

ERIC Grid
CitizenM Hotels
• Founded in 2008 with first hotel at Schiphol
Airport, Amsterdam
• 20 hotels in 15 Cities and further 17 in
development
• Set out to serve growing mass of frequent
travellers – mobile citizens – with affordable
luxury
• Blue Ocean space: a hybrid of a place to sleep
and “somewhere to work, relax and play”

Citizen M Hotels (2020)

 Factors of Competition
• Blue Ocean process identifies the gap between the current industry offering
and what customers really need. A structured brainstorm identifies strategic
moves to bridge this gap and so create Blue Ocean offering

1. How does the a rk et 2. What are

M
Industry currently lo r ation Customer “pain
Exp
compete? points”?
Look purely
from Look purely
managers
perspectiv
e
Factors of Customer from
perspectiv
e
Competition

t o the
an ges of
c tured 3. What Strategic Ch ctors
Stru nstorm fa
e t ition
Bra
i Moves - can we com
p
make?

…Then 4. Selecting and Validating Winning Ideas

 1. How Does Industry Currently Compete?
• First step is to look at the current approach to competition in the industry
• Use Strategy canvas to look at this from the perspective of managers in the
industry – what do they focus on in competing with peers?
High

5 Star Luxury Hotels

Amount / Level

“As Is”
of a Factor

Value Curve

3 Star Hotels

Low
ice

..

..

..
ice

n
s

ze
n

y
ff

…
pe

io
rt
io

bb
ta

se t

Si
rv
Pr

m an

fo

at
pt

Ty
yS

Lo

om

oc
oo ur
ce

om

Co
bb

eL NB: At later stages you

/ R esta
Re

Ro
Ro
Lo

om

will focus on key

im
R

Pr
Ro

factors where making

Kim and Mauborgne (2018) strategic moves

Where do managers specifically focus activities?

 Factors of Competition

1. How does the Industry currently compete?

1. How does the 2. What are

Industry currently Customer “pain
compete? points”?
Look purely
Factors of Customer from
perspectiv
e
Competition

t o the
an ges of
3. What Strategic Ch ctors
fa
e t ition
Moves - can we com
p
make?

…Then 4. Selecting and Validating Winning Ideas

 2. What are Customer “Pain Points”?

• Now adopt the customer viewpoint - seek to gain direct understanding of what
really matters to customers

• Uncovering hidden “pain points” by looking across the full range of ways the
industry delivers utility to buyers and more importantly blocks utility

• In order to better understand buyer utility - and more importantly blocks on

buyer utility – and and to look outside of conventionally defined boundaries
Kim and Mauborgne suggest looking across the full buyer experience cycle..

• …and consider a range of different ways in which utility can be delivered to

customers

• The “Buyer-Utility” matrix is offered as a tool to assist this process

Typically managers will by default tend to consider

only parts of the experience cycle and some forms
Kim and Mauborgne (2018) of utility that customers value

Looking Through the Eyes of Customers

 Stages of the Buyer Experience Cycle

Purchase Delivery Use Supplements Maintenance Disposal

Customer
Productivity

Simplicity
Buyer Utility Levers

Convenience In each cell identify pain points by asking what

is the biggest block to utility and what the key
reason for that block
Risk
reduction

Fun &
Image

Environmental
Friendliness

Kim and Mauborgne (2018)

Simplified Buyer Utility Matrix:
(use for short case analysis)

Buyer Experience Cycle

Supplements

Maintenance
Purchase

Disposal
Delivery

Customer Use
Pain
Points
CitzenM Hotels
Stages of the Buyer Experience Cycle

Service
Purchase Check In Stay Services Check Out
Recovery

Customer Limited
Productivity Internet
Waiting in Line
Wait in line
Simplicity Nowhere AGAIN!
to chill out
Buyer Utility Levers

Hidden
costs
Convenience
Location Food + drink
when I need it
Risk
reduction
Poor Having to tip
Bed/Showe everyone!
Fun & Price r
Image Fluctuation Room service
expensive

Dull!
Environmental
Friendliness Paper! Paper
AGAIN!
 Factors of Competition

1. How does the Industry currently compete?

2. What are Customer “pain points”?
Citze nM Ho te ls
Sta g e s o f the Buye r Expe rie nc e Cyc le

1. How does the Cus to me r

P ro duc tivity
Pu rc has e Che c k In Stay S e rvic e s

Limite d
Inte rne t
S e rvic e
Re c o ve ry
Che c k Out

Industry currently
Waitin g in Line

Wait in line
S implic ity No whe re AGAIN!
to c hill o ut

Buyer Utility Levers

Hidde n
c o s ts
Co nve nie nc e

compete?
Lo c atio n Fo o d + drink
whe n I ne e d it
Ris k
re duc tio n
Po o r Be d/ Having to tip
S h o we r e ve ryo ne !
Fun & Pric e
Imag e Fluc tuatio n Ro o m s e rv ic e
e xpe ns ive

Dull!
Enviro nme ntal

Factors of
Frie ndline s s P ape r! Pape r
AGAIN!

Competition

t o the
an ges of
3. What Strategic Ch ctors
fa
e t ition
Moves - can we com
p
make?

…Then 4. Selecting and Validating Winning Ideas

 3. What Strategic Moves Can we Make?

“Looking through new eyes”!

Structured Brainstorming on each path

creates partial ERIC grids/value
curves that are then combined to
number of possible strategies

47
Based on Kim and Mauborgne (1997 and 2018)
 3. What Strategic Moves Can we Make?

“Looking through new eyes”!

..to complete ERIC grid

Citizen M Hotel
Eliminate Reduce
• Front desk/Concierge • Guest Room Types
• Prestige lobby • Room Size
• Bellhops/doormen
• Full service restaurant
and room service

Increase
Structured Brainstorming on each path • Sleeping Environment
creates partial ERIC grids/value • Prime location
curves that are then combined to • Free
number of possible strategies movies/internet/phone
calls
Create
• ATM style check-in
• Guest’s “Living Room”
with 24/7 bar/pantry
and iMacs
• Multitasking
“Ambassadors hired
for attitude

48
Based on Kim and Mauborgne (1997 and 2018)
49
Amount / Level

High

Low
of a Factor

Pr
ice
Re
ce
pt
io
Lo n
bb
yS
Re ta
ff
/ R sta
oo ur
m an

Based on Kim and Mauborgne (1997 and 2018)

se t
5 Star Luxury Hotels

rv
ice
Lo
Eliminate

bb
Ro y
om
Ty
pe
s
Ro
om
Si
Ro ze
Reduce

om
Co
m
Pr fo
im rt
Fr eL
ee oc
Mo at
io
vie n
s/I
nt
Increase

er
AT ne
M t
Ch
Gu ec
es k-
tL in
ivi
ng
3 Star Hotels

Ro
Strategy Canvas: CitizenM Hotels

Am om
Create

ba
ss
ad
Citizen M

or
s
 Factors of Competition

1. How does the Industry currently compete?

2. What are Customer “pain points”?
Citze nM Ho te ls
Sta g e s o f the Buye r Expe rie nc e Cyc le

1. How does the Cus to me r

P ro duc tivity
Pu rc has e Che c k In Stay S e rvic e s

Limite d
Inte rne t
S e rvic e
Re c o ve ry
Che c k Out

Industry currently
Waitin g in Line

Wait in line
S implic ity No whe re AGAIN!
to c hill o ut

Buyer Utility Levers

Hidde n
c o s ts
Co nve nie nc e

compete?
Lo c atio n Fo o d + drink
whe n I ne e d it
Ris k
re duc tio n
Po o r Be d/ Having to tip
S h o we r e ve ryo ne !
Fun & Pric e
Imag e Fluc tuatio n Ro o m s e rv ic e
e xpe ns ive

Dull!
Enviro nme ntal

Factors of
Frie ndline s s P ape r! Pape r
AGAIN!

Competition

3. What Strategic Moves - can we make?

S trate g y Canvas : Citize nM Ho te ls

Elim inate R e d uc e Inc re as e Cre ate

High

5 S tar Luxury Ho te ls
Citize n M
Amo unt / Level
of a Factor

3 S tar Ho te ls

Low

29
Based on Kim and Mauborgne (1997 and 2018)

…Then 4. Selecting and Validating Winning Ideas

 4. Selecting and Validating Wining Ides
Target Value Curve

High
Breaking through industry
5 S tar Luxury Ho te ls boundaries and mindset
Citize n M
requires buy in from across
Amo unt / Le vel
o f a Fac to r

the firm
3 S tar Ho te ls

Low

“Value Curve Fair”

ic e

rt

n
n

t
ze

s
om
y

in
f

s
se t

or
ne
af

io
io

rv

bb

fo
m n

pe
ic e

Si

k-
at
pt

St

er

ad
m

Ro
o o aur

Lo

ec
Ty
Pr

om

oc
ce

nt
Co
by

ss
Ch
s /I

ng
om

eL
/ Res t
Re

Ro

ba
b

om

iv i
M
Lo

v ie
Ro
R

im

Am
AT

tL
Ro

Pr

Mo

es
Gu
ee
Fr

51
Based on Kim and Mauborgne (1997 and 2018)
Citizen M Hotels
 Key Figures

Cost per room

40% lower than
Operates 20
average 4 Star
Hotels in 12
Hotels
Major Cities

Cost of staff
50% lower than
Highest guest industry
rating in average
industry
90%
Highest occupancy
(industry average 60%)
profitability per
Sq.m in world In 2019, the company raised c.€200m of
capital through the sale of stock valuing
Based on Kumar (2017)) the company at €2bn
 CitizenM’s Business Model
Company Perspective Customers’ Perspective
Over 50% Over 40% 35% reduction Efficiency Unique compelling
Prime 5-star sleeping
reduction in reduction in in constructing gains communal living
Location environment
staff required real guest rooms space
estate

Vis-à-vis comparable hotel operations Quick check-in Great service Free high speed
kiosk by internet and
ambassadors movies

Low marketing costs

Cost savings > Cost Additions

Price
Luxury
Low Cost Position accessible to 3
star customers
+ experience

High Expanded Affordable

Volume Market luxury

High growth in
Source: Kim and Mauborgne (2018)
revenues and profits
 Systematic Process is the Core

Six Paths New Value Curves

Value Curve

Immersive

Offering Level versus

Market Expectations
Very high

High

Interviews and Average

mapping “as is” Very low

Low

value curve Non

existent
-

Key Elements

Winning
Market Ideas through Selecting and validating
Exploration structured winning Ideas
… and the ‘Buyer Utility Grid’ was used as a further filter to
brainstorming
produce the final short list of Value Propositions
Buyer experience cycle

Brand Site Filling Shop Payment Other

choice choice up services

U Customer

Value Curve Fair

productivity
T
L
I Simplicity
T
Y Convenience

L
E
V
E
R
Risk

Fun / image And

Validation and Testing
Environmental
S friendliness

Quantifying
www.emergenceconsulting.com 40
© 2001 Emergence Con sult ing.
All rights reserved .

Buyer Utility Map

ERIC Grid

55
 Conclusion

• Firms are bound by rigidities and path dependencies that mean

they can drift away from providing the value the market requires.
This can lead to the failure
• Blue Ocean strategy challenges firms to look outside current
industry boundaries and create new market space (blue ocean)
that makes the competition irrelevant
• Blue Ocean process provides a set of frameworks to aid
managers in recognising and and occupying the new spaces (e.g.
ERIC grid, Value Curves)

• Criticisms of this perspective suggest it is a useful new tool for our

toolbox rather than a panacea to solve all your strategy needs
 References
Barney, J. (1991) “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage”, Journal of
Management, 17:99-120
Bessant, J. (2003) “Challenges of Innovation Management”, in Shavinina, L.V. (ed.) The
International Handbook on Innovation, Oxford:Elsevier Science: 761-774
CitizenM Hotels (2002) Our Mission, available from: https://www3.citizenm.com/global/company
[Accessed August 2020]
Johnson, G., Whittington, R and Scoles, R. (2011) Exploring Strategy: Text and Cases, 9th ed.
Harlow:Prentice Hall
Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. (1997) “Value Innovation: The Strategic Logic of High Growth”,
Harvard Business Review, 75 (1): 102-112
Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. (2005) “Blue ocean strategy: From theory to practice”, California
Management Review, 47(3): 105-121.
Kim, W.C.. Mauborgne, R. (2018) Blue Ocean Shift: Beyond Competing, New York:McMillan
Kumar, R (2017) Blue Ocean Shift: Beyond Competing - Proven Steps to Inspire Confidence and
Seize New Growth, presentation to Magic Academy Symposium: Malaysia, available from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LUEjhkeF6A [accessed August 2020]
Leavy, B. and McKiernan, P. (2009) Strategic Leadership: Governance and Renewal,
Basignstoke: Palgrave McMillan
Porter, M.E. (1996) “What is strategy?” Harvard Business Review, 74(6): 61-78.
Webb, D. (2018) Using Strategy Frameworks in Practice, UWE Working Paper