Quality Control Assurance & Reliability: BITS Pilani

Quality Control Assurance &
Reliability
BITS Pilani Dr. Sudeep Kumar Pradhan, PhD.

Pilani Campus
A Normal distribution
2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Six Sigma – Contd..
• Focus of Six sigma is to reduce the process
variation such that the spec. limits are 6 σ from
the mean
• If process is stable and remains centered, the
proportion of defective will be 0.001ppm on
each tail (Ideal)
• Even for a shifts by 1.5 σ from the mean, no. of
defects will be 3.4ppm on each tail
• For the example above there will be 0.0034
defect per product and the yield will be 99.66%
• Requires a fundamental change in management
philosophy and culture 3
Quality Function
Deployment (QFD)
• A planning tool that focus on designing
quality into a product
• A system that involves cross functional
team and takes care of complete cycle
of product development
• Helps to translate customer needs into
technical requirements of products
• Called as House of Quality, Matrix
product planning, Customer drive
4
Questions answered by QFD
• What do customers want?
• Are all preferences equally important?
• Will delivering perceived needs deliver a
competitive advantage?
• How can we change the product?
• How do engineering characteristics influence
customer perceived quality?
• How does one engineering attribute affect
another?
• What are the appropriate targets for the
engineering characteristics? 5
QFD “house of quality”
6
QFD - Process
• It is based on a structure called House of

Quality (HOQ)
• Objective
– Delineates the scope of the project
– Only one task is specified in the objective
• What
– Voice of the customer, which express their
needs and wants
• Rating
– Scale of 1 to 5 is used to give prioritize the
wants (1 – Least and 5 – Most Important)
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Customer Rating
Voice of the Customer
8
QFD – Process (Contd..)
• Technical Descriptors (Hows)

– All possible technical / engineering
requirements are found through
Brainstorming
– Done by a cross-functional team
• Target goals
– May or may not be used
– Uses symbols
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Target goals
Voice of the Designer
10
• Co-relationship matrix
– Forms the roof of HOQ
– 4 levels of relationship – strong
positive, positive, negative, strong
negative
– Used for determining the trade-off
between ‘Hows’
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x = Design Trade-offs
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• Customer competitive assessment

– To identify the relative position of the
organization w.r.t competitors for each
needs
– Helps to identify the strength and
weakness of the company and thereby
close the gap
– Called as Product Benchmarking
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Benchmarking
14
• Technical Competitive Assessment
– Similar to that of customer assessment of
competitor
– Done by a technical staff of the company
– Used to set objective values for the
technical descriptors
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Technical Competitive
Assessment
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• Relationship matrix
– A mechanism to analyse how each
technical descriptors will help in
achieving ‘What’
– Represented by 0 to 5, where 0 is no
relationship 1 – low, 3 – medium and 5 -
High
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18
• Absolute and relative scores are

calculated, based on which
prioritization of needs is done
• In next phase, the ‘Hows’ will
become ‘What’
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U – Us
M – Maytag
W – Whirlpool
G – GE
F – Frigidaire
A - Amana
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QFD – The real meaning
• It is used to take the ‘voice of customer’
and translate it into a set of product and
process parameters and can be deployed
through a 4-phase process
– Product planning
– Part / Subsystem deployment
– Process planning
– Production planning
21
QFD – The real meaning – contd.
technical
requirements
component
characteristics
process
operations
quality plan
22
QFD - Advantages
• Evaluates competitor from 2

perspectives – Customer and
Technical
• Used to identify the degree of
improvements needed in the product
and process
• Reduces the product development
time as it reduces product redesign
• Improves the communication
between different department 23
QFD - Disadvantages
• Enormous amount of information must be
gathered
• Matrix is too large
– Prioritize on important attributes
– Analyzes independent subsystems independently
• Customer priorities not clear
– Consider segmenting market
• QFD process is implemented in phases and
hence time consuming
• QFD is messy
– Not QFD, but rather the interaction between diverse
groups is cause
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– Stick with it, the results are worthwhile
Innovative Adaptation &
Performance Evaluation
• Innovation • Continuous
– Cut costs, reduce Improvement
lead time, improve
– Any one such
productivity, save
capital and human improvement takes
resources and place
hence increased – Happens very
revenue frequently
– Do not happen very – Leads to slow and
often steady increase in
– Result in a steep quality
increase in quality
– Eg. Benchmarking
– High risk strategy 25
Innovation & Cont. Improvement
26
Benchmarking (BM)
 Practice of identifying best practices in industry and

thereby setting goals to emulate them
 Facilitates continuous improvement
 Started by Xerox in the year 1970 by R.C. Camp
 Steps for BM differs from company to company due to

different operating concerns
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Objective of Benchmarking
•The main objective of any benchmarking activity is:

– To identify key performance measures for each function of a
company’s operations
– To measure the internal performance levels of the company
as well as that of competitors
– To ensure that its business process goals are set to exceed the
best quantitative results achieved by leading organizations
– To incorporate best practices throughout the organization
business process
– To reach a level of maturity where benchmarking is an
ongoing part of management system in all areas of the
company
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Benchmarking Process
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Benchmarking - Requirements
 Not just merely identifying best practices, it should be how

practices can be adapted
 It needs Management commitment and should motivate

employees with rewards
 Training is a must on process mapping and flowcharting
 All resources should be made available
 Hard and Soft systems should mesh

30
Why Benchmarking?
 Thorough understanding of company’s own processes,

products etc.
 Identify Non Value Added activities
 Provides an effective way to manage change and also a
roadmap to adapt best practices
 Impact of technological development
 Reduce cycle time, which in turn related to PM
 Enable comparison of performance measures (PM) in
different dimensions with ‘spider chart’
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Spider Chart
32
Quality Audit
 To examine the effectiveness of management control

programs and also to identify problems
 3 parties are involved – Client, Auditor and Auditee

 Auditor – Internal and External
 Purpose
 Suitability Quality Audit: Evaluation of Quality
program against reference standard
 Conformity Quality Audit: Evaluation of operations,
activities within the quality system with respect to
procedures 33
Quality Audit – Contd..
 Types
 System Audit
 Most extensive
 Evaluation of the quality program documentation

with respect to a reference standard
 Includes evaluation of activities and operations

that are followed to meet the desired quality
objectives 34
 Types – contd..
 Process Audit
 In depth evaluation of one or more processes
 Takes less time
 More focussed and less costly
 Used generally in process industries like
chemical industries
 Done when there is need for process
improvement or when there is unexpected
output
35
 Types – contd..
 Product Audit
 Assessment of final product or service on its ability
to meet customer needs
 Involves conducting periodic test on products or
obtain info. from customers
 Separate from decision on product acceptance or
rejection and hence not part of the inspection system
36
 Audit Quality
 Influenced by independence and objectivity of the auditor
 Depends on being a external or internal auditor
 For suitability audit, external is most preferable
 Methods
 Location oriented
 All functions are audited in that particular location
 Examines the action and interaction of the elements in the
quality program at that location and may be used to
identify discrepancies between location
 Function oriented
 Examine and evaluate activities related to a particular
element or function within a quality program at all
locations
 Successive visits to each location is necessary to complete
the audit
 Utility of quality audit is derived only when remedial actions 37
are taken BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Tools for Continuous
Quality Improvement
• For solving the problems and involves data collection,
analysis, hypothesis and validation
• Called as 7 QC tools
– Check sheets
– Histogram
– Flow chart
– Pareto chart
– Cause and effect diagram
– Control chart
– Scatter diagram
38
What are tools and techniques?
• Tools
– Tools and techniques are practical methods, skills,
means or mechanisms that can be applied to particular
tasks
– Used to facilitate positive change and improvements
– Narrow in focus and is usually used on its own
– Examples of tools are 7 QC tools
• Technique
– It has a wider application than a tool.
– Needs more thought, skill and training to use
– It can be thought of as a collection of tools
– Eg., statistical process control (SPC) employs a
variety of tools such as charts, graphs and histograms
39
Why to use tools and
techniques?
• Plays a key role in a company-wide
approach to continuous improvement. They
allow:
– Processes to be monitored and evaluated;
– Everyone to become involved in the
improvement process;
– People to solve their own problems;
– A mindset of continuous improvement to be
developed
40
Requirement for tools and
techniques
• Requires attention to be paid to a number of
“critical success factors” to make their use and
application effective and efficient. Some of
these are:
– Full management support and commitment;
– Effective, timely and planned training;
– A genuine need to use the tool or technique;
– Defined aims and objective for use;
– A co-operative environment;
– Backup and support from improvement facilitators.
41
7 QC Tools – contd.
• Check sheets
– A systematic record
keeping or data
collection
– Observations are
recorded as they
happen and reveals
pattern or trends
42
7 QC Tools – Contd..
• Histograms
– Displays large amount
of data that are difficult
to interpret in raw form
– Provides summary of
data and also reveals
whether the process is
centered, the degree of
variation etc.
– Used to identify process
capability relative to
customer requirements
43
• Flow charts
– Shows the sequence
of events
– Mostly used in
manufacturing and
service operations to
describe working
procedures
– Valuable process
information can be
obtained in addition
to identifying
problematic areas
44
• Pareto Diagram
– helps to prioritize
the problem by
arranging them in
decreasing order of
importance
45
• Cause and Effect diagram
– Called as Ishikawa diagram for fish
bone diagram
– Explores possible causes of
problem due to men, machine,
material and method
– To identify root cause, each cause
may be further broken down
46
47
• Control charts
– Distinguishes special (assignable) causes of
variation from common causes
– Used to monitor and control a process on a ongoing
basis
– Plots a selected quality characteristic, found from
subgroups of observations, as a function of sample
number
– Central line on the control chart is the average value
of the characteristic
– Two limits, UCL and LCL are used to detect whether
the process goes out of control
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49
• Scatter Plots
– Shows the
relationship between
two variables
– Used as a follow up to
cause and effect
analysis to find
whether a stated
cause has impact on
quality
50
Chapter - 4
Fundamentals of Statistical
Concepts & Techniques in Quality
Control and Improvement
51
Basic Terminologies
• Population • Sample
– Set of all items that – A subset of population
possess a certain – Eg. Selecting 200 plastic
characteristic of interest cups from the week 23
output
– Eg. Average thickness of
• Statistic
the plastic cups – A characteristic of a
produced in week no. 23 sample, which is used to
(10,000) make inferences on the
• Parameter population parameters
– Is a characteristic of a that are unknown
population, which – Eg. Average thickness of
describes it 200 plastic
52
cups is 1mm
Basics of Probability
• Probability of an event describes the chance of

occurrence of that event
• A probability function is bound by 0 and 1
– 0 for non-occurrence, 1 for occurrence
• Set of all outcomes of an experiment is called ‘sample
space’ (S)
• If each outcome in sample space is likely to happen,
then the prob. of event A is given by P(A) = na / N and
probability associated with sample space is P(S) = 1
53
Example
A company makes plastic storage bags for the food industry.

Out of the hourly production of 2000 500-g bags, 40 were
found to be nonconforming. If the inspector chooses a bag
randomly from the hour's production, what is the probability
of it being nonconforming?
54
Basics of Probability – Contd..
• Events
– Simple events cannot be broken into other events
– Compound events are made up of two or more simple
events
– Complementary of an event, say A, implies the
occurrence of everything except A. i.e. P(Ac) = 1 – P(A)
• Laws
– Additive law defines the probability of the union of 2 or
more events (say A & B), i.e. implies A may happen, B
may happen or both
– P(A u B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A n B)
55
Simple and Compound Events
Suppose that an inspector is sampling transistors from an

assembly line and identifying them as acceptable or not.
Suppose the inspector chooses two transistors. What are the
simple events? Give an example of a compound event. Find
the probability of finding at least one acceptable transistor.
56
• Laws – contd..
– Multiplicative law defines the probability of the
intersection of 2 or more events (say A & B), i.e.
implies all the events in the group occurs
– P(A n B) = P(A).P(B | A) = P(B).P(A | B)
– P(B | A) represents conditional probability, (i.e.,
probability that B occurs if A has)
• Independence
– Two events A & B are said to be independent, if the
outcome of one has no influence on outcome of
other
– P(B | A) = P(B) and hence P(A n B) = P(A).P(B)
57
• Mutually Exclusive
– Two events A & B are said to be mutually exclusive, if
they cannot happen simultaneously.
– Probability of Intersection P(A n B) = 0 and
probability of union P(A u B) = P(A) + P(B)
– For mutually exclusive, the events A & B are
dependent. If A & B are independent, the additive
rule will be P(A or B or both) = P(A) + P(B) –
P(A).P(B)
58
Example
In the production of metal plates for an assembly, it

is known from past experience that 5% of the plates
do not meet the length requirement. Also, from
historical records, 3% of the plates do not meet the
width requirement. Assume that there are no
dependencies between the processes that make the
length and those that trim the width. What is the
probability of producing a plate that meets both the
length and width requirements?
59
Example
• What proportion of the parts will not meet at least one of

the requirements?
• What proportion of parts will meet neither length nor
width requirements?
60
Example
Suppose the operations that produce the length and the width
are not independent. If the length does not satisfy the
requirement, it causes an improper positioning of the part
during the width trimming and thereby increases the chances
of nonconforming width. From experience, it is estimated that
if the length does not conform to the requirement, the chance
of producing nonconforming widths is 60%. Find the
proportion of parts that will neither conform to the length
nor the width requirements.
61
Thank You
62

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Quality Control Assurance &

BITS Pilani Dr. Sudeep Kumar Pradhan, PhD.

• It is based on a structure called House of

Voice of the Customer

• Technical Descriptors (Hows)

Voice of the Designer

• Customer competitive assessment

• Absolute and relative scores are

• Evaluates competitor from 2

 Practice of identifying best practices in industry and

 Facilitates continuous improvement

 Started by Xerox in the year 1970 by R.C. Camp

 Steps for BM differs from company to company due to

•The main objective of any benchmarking activity is:

 Not just merely identifying best practices, it should be how

 It needs Management commitment and should motivate

 Training is a must on process mapping and flowcharting

 All resources should be made available

 Hard and Soft systems should mesh

 Thorough understanding of company’s own processes,

 To examine the effectiveness of management control

 3 parties are involved – Client, Auditor and Auditee

 Evaluation of the quality program documentation

 Includes evaluation of activities and operations

• Probability of an event describes the chance of

A company makes plastic storage bags for the food industry.

Suppose that an inspector is sampling transistors from an

In the production of metal plates for an assembly, it

• What proportion of the parts will not meet at least one of

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