002 Protection Principles

Page 1 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India
Power System Structure
Generation Transmission / Sub transmission Distribution
Medium 24 kV Extra High Voltage 765 kV

Medium Voltage 33 kV
Voltage 21 kV 400 kV
22 kV
15 kV 220 kV 11 kV
13.8 kV High Voltage 132 kV
110 kV
66 kV
The
Thepurpose
purposeofofan
anelectrical
electricalpower
powersystem
systemisistotogenerate
generateandandsupply
supplyelectrical
electricalenergy
energytoto
consumers.
consumers.The
Thesystem
systemshould
shouldbebedesigned
designedandandmanaged
managedtotodeliver
deliverthis
thisenergy
energytotothe
the
utilisation
utilisationpoints
pointswith
withboth
bothreliability
reliabilityand
andeconomy.
economy.
Many
Manyitems
itemsofofequipment
equipmentare
arevery
veryexpensive,
expensive,and
andso sothe
thecomplete
completepower
powersystem
system
represents a very large capital investment.
represents a very large capital investment.
..

Owner of high voltage networks
Public utility companies

Interconnected system, National network, Regional system, Urban network
Industrial companies
Steel, Cement, Chemistry, Automobile . . .
Power plants
Railways
Special systems
Airports, Hospitals, Testing stations, Ships . . .

Protective Relaying
Role of Protection
Protective Relaying is the most important

feature of power system design aimed at
minimising the damage to equipment and
interruption to service in the event of faults. It
is therefore a co-factor among other factors
resorted to improve reliability of power system.

The Purpose of Protection
The protection can not prevent system faults,
But it can:
Limit the damage caused by short
circuits
While:
Protecting people and plant from
damage
Selectively clearing faults in

miliseconds
Protecting plant from overload

conditions
Power system must operate in a safe manner at all times.

Causes and Probability of System Disturbanc
Causes
 Operator Mistakes
 Pollution/Condensation
 Equipment failures, e.g. P.T.'s, Isolators
 Transient Overvoltages
Probability
 System faults (220/400 kV): 3p.a. and 100 km
 10-20 kV metal clad switchgear: 10-3 p.a. and feeder
 GIS switchgear: 5-10-2 p.a. and bus
 outdoor switchgear: 110/132 kV 7*10-2 p.a. -1and bus
220/275 kV 10 p.a. and bus
400 kV 2*10-1 p.a. and bus

Principles of Relaying
Since protective relaying comes into action at the
time of equipment distress, a certain safeguard is
necessary in the unlikely event of its failure to act at
the hour of need. Hence, two groups of protective
schemes are generally employed -
a) Primary Protection
b) Back-up Protection
Primary Protection is the first line of defense,

whereas back-up relaying takes over the protection
of equipment, should the primary protection fail.
Primary Protection
The Primary Protection has following characteristic

features -
1. It has always a defined zone of operation.
2. It should operate before any back-up protection

could operate, therefore, it should be faster in
operation.
3. It should be able to completely isolate the fault

from all the current feeding sources.
4. It should be stable for all operating conditions.

Back-up Protection
1. Back-up protection should provide sufficient time

for the primary protection to perform its duty.
2. Back-up protection covers a wider zone of

protection. Therefore, there is always a possibility
of large scale disturbance, when back-up relays
operate.
3. Under primary protection failure, several back-up

relays may operate for complete isolation of fault.

Reasons of Primary Protection Failure
Primary protections failure could be due to any of

the following reasons -
1. Current or Potential Transformer failure
2. Loss of Auxiliary Control Voltage
3. Defective Primary Relays
4. Open Circuits in Control & Trip Coil
5. Failure of Breaker
It is therefore logical that back-up relays should not

utilise any of the above items as common with
primary relays.

Protection Concept
Circuit Breaker
CT / VT
Cabling
DISTANCE RELAY
Protection Battery
 The system is only as strong as the weakest link!

System structure: meshed network

System structure: radial network for public supply

System structure: radial network in the industry
G G

Neutral earthing
Earth fault-
Isolated neutral
compensation
Solid earthing Low-impedance

Neutral earthing

Main components of electrical networks
Generator Three-winding
transformer
Earth fault
compensation coil
Bus coupler
Double
busbar
Short-circuit current
limiting reactor Cable
Switch
M
Substation Motor Shunt
Overhead reactor
line
Filter circuit
Consumer

Protection target
Selective Fast

Basic Protection Requirements
 Reliability dependability (availability)

high dependability = low risk of failure to trip
 Security stable for all operating conditions , high security = low

risk of over-trip
 Speed high speed minimizes damage

high speed reduces stability problems
 Selectivity trip the minimum number of circuit breakers
 Sensitivity notice smallest fault value

Protected zone
Circuit-breaker
Current transformer

Zones of Protection
 To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected when a fault
occurs, protection is arranged in zones
 Zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system
is left unprotected
 Location of the CT connection to the protection usually defines the zone
 Unit type protections have clear zones reach e.g Diff. Relay, REF relay
 Zone reach depends on measurement of the system quantities e.g OC ,
EF, distance relays . The start will be defined but the extent (or ‘reach’) is
subject to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and
measurement errors.

Criteria indicating fault condition

Current I I> I> I>>  I I d I
dt
Voltage U U< U>
Impedance Z Z<
Phase angle  
 
Power S P Q S(t)
Frequency f f

Overcurrent-time protection
t2 Definite-time
overcurrent-
t1 protection
IN I> I >> I
Inverse-time
overcurrent-protection
IN I

Differential protection
Line
Load condition
Istart - Iend = 0  I = 0
Fault condition
Istart - Iend  0  I  0
Busbar
IA IB Load condition
IC IA + I B + IC = 0  I = 0
IA IB Fault condition
IC IA + I B + I C  0  I  0

Overvoltage - Undervoltage
Overvoltage
U>
UN
U< Undervoltage

Impedance protection
I
U
Z
U Load
I
Load
I
U
U Load Z
I
Fault
Z Fault
 Z Load

Distance protection
Z = l  Z'
Fault Line
X Line
2
UN
Load
Z Load =
SLoad

Back-up protection I
t = 700 ms
t = 400 ms
t = 100 ms
I> I> I>
I> I> I>

Back-up protection II
t = 400 ms
t = 100 ms
Z< Z< Z<
t = 1000 ms
t = 700 ms
t = 300 ms
t = 0 ms
I I I
I> I> I>

Survey Equipment - Type of protection
Line Time-graded protection

Transformer Differential protection

High voltage - Medium voltage Time-graded protection
Busbar Reverse interlock

Transformer Fuse
Medium voltage - Low voltage Time-graded protection
Motor Time-graded protection

Overload protection

History
1900
Electromechanical relays
1980
Analog electronical relays
1990
Numerical relays

Network calculation
Power plant Transformer Switching Line Load

station
Three-phase system
Single-line
diagram
Equivalent circuit in
symmetrical components

Load flow
A non-linear task
U = f(I)
U  UN PN, QN
UN
I = f(U) I = f(U)
SN
Iteration-process: I Load =
Current iteration 3 UN
Newton - Raphson
2
U
Z Load = N
SN

Short-circuit calculation
UN
Ik
U
Ohms Law: I =
R

Time characterictics of short-circuit currents
Fault occurrence in Fault occurrence at

the voltage maximum voltage zero
Remote
Fault location
t t
Fault location
close to the
generator t

Fault currents
Current
Initial symmetrical
short-circuit
current
2 2  I "k 2  2  Ia Breaking current
Peak short-circuit ip
current 2  2  I k Sustained short-
circuit current
Time
ta
Ik3 Ia ip Sk´´ Sa
Fault current contributions Fault current distribution in the system
Ik2 Ik2E IEE
Ik1
Ik max Ik min
VDE Preloaded short-circuit

Types of short-circuits in three-phase systems
3-pole
2-pole
1-pole

Typical equipment data Network
2
U
ZSystem
S  3 U  I
"
k N K Z = N
S
System "
k

Typical equipment data Transformer
2
U
Z Transf. = N  uK
SN
Ztransf.
UN1/UN2 SN uK ZTransf.
380 kV 110 kV 20 kV
380/110 kV 300 MVA 15 % 72  6 0.2 

110/20 kV 40 MVA 15 % 45 1.5 
20/0.4 kV 630 kVA 6% 37.0 

Typical equipment data Line
ZLine = l  (R’1 + j X’1)
ZLine
R’1 X’1 Z’1 C’1

380 kV
Overhead line 0.03 + j 0.25 /km 0.25 /km 14 nF/km
110 kV
Overhead line 0.07 + j 0.38  /km 0.39  /km 10 nF/km
Cable 0.04 + j 0.11 /km 0.12  /km 400 nF/km
20 kV
Overhead line 0.31 + j 0.36 /km 0.48 /km 10 nF/km
Cable 0.20 + j 0.13  /km 0.24 /km 300 nF/km

Planning of power system protection systems
Optimal Good
protection concept protection devices
Fast,
more secure,
and selective
protection system
Regular
control:
Precise
Maintenance, check,
setting
self-monitoring
Precise
commissioning

Example: Transformer protection system
I>
= Components of the protection

system
Battery
110 kV
1. Current transformers
Transformer Differential I
40 MVA protection 2. Pilot wires
3. Protection devices
4. Battery
Z<

Example: Line protection system
Voltage transformer
Current transformer Circuit-breaker
Secondary wirering
Battery
Protection device =
Components of a protection system
1. Transformers (CT,VT)
2. Secondary wirering
3. Protection device
4. Circuit-breaker
5. Battery

Time grading schedule

General Structure of a Numerical Protection Device
Protection device
Signal
Signal Processing Signal Tripping Tripping Circuit
Equipment
conversion (calculation) analysis signal coil breaker
tailoring
Binary Inputs Auxiliary supply Settings Annunciation
Equipment : Lines, cables, transformers, machines Processing : Digital Filters,

Numerical Methods,
Measuring Algorithms
Signal Conversion : CTs and VTs Signal Analysis :
Comparison with
Settings, grading
Signal Tailoring : Signal matching, Anti-Aliasing Filters, A/ D Conversion
Hardware for Digital Relays
PC-Interface
System-Interface
Filter 2....11
RS232/ Input/
Measur.inpu binary
485/FO Output
ts Serial Inputs
(max. 11) Ports
Interfaces
5....11
Alarm
Relays
max. 11 Amplifier
Current-
Inputs 2....5
(100/N. 1s) Trip
Relays
A/D-
max. 7 Converter
32/16 Bit Memory :
Voltage- 8....16
0001 processor- RAM
inputs 0101 Input/Output- LED
System EEPROM
(140 V cont.) 0011 unit Indicators
EPROM
100V/ 1A, 5A 10V Input-/Output

digital
analogue analogue contacts
Analog to Digital ( A / D ) Conversion of Measuring Signals
ME Filter S&
H
• • •
IL1 1 kHz
• • • MUX
IL2 ; IL3 ; IE PGA

A
1 0 1 0 0 1
D
UL1 ; UL2 ; UL3
• • •
UE 1 kHz
• • •
ME Measuring Input S & H Sample u. Hold

MUX Multiplexer PGA Programmable Gain Ampliflier

Analog to Digital ( A / D ) Conversion of Measuring Signals
Example of an A/D Conversion of a Sinusoidal Signal.
A voltage signal 10 sin ω t is sampled at a rate of 1 kHz (Sampling time Δ T = 1 ms) .

ω = 2πf, with f being the power frequency = 50 Hz..
How does the output of a 12 bit (11 bits + sign) ADC look like ?
Note : 1 ms for a 50 Hz system corresponds to 18 electrical degrees
10 sin ω t
t t
Input of ADC Output of ADC

Sampling Rates used in Siemens Numerical Protection
S.No Relay Designation Sampling Rate
1. 7UT612 12 Samples / Cycle
600 Hz for 50 Hz system
4. 7SJ61-64 16 Samples / Cycle
5. 7SA... 20 Samples / Cycle
6. 7SD... 20 Samples / Cycle

7. 7SS... 20 Samples / Cycle
8. 7UM Depends on network frequency

Further Readings
The Art & Science of Protective Relaying

By : C Russel Mason

002 Protection Principles

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Page 1 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Power System Structure

Generation Transmission / Sub transmission Distribution

Medium 24 kV Extra High Voltage 765 kV

Page 2 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Public utility companies

Page 3 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Protective Relaying is the most important

Page 4 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Selectively clearing faults in

Protecting plant from overload

Power system must operate in a safe manner at all times.

Page 5 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 6 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Primary Protection is the first line of defense,

The Primary Protection has following characteristic

2. It should operate before any back-up protection

3. It should be able to completely isolate the fault

4. It should be stable for all operating conditions.

Page 8 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

1. Back-up protection should provide sufficient time

2. Back-up protection covers a wider zone of

3. Under primary protection failure, several back-up

Page 9 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Primary protections failure could be due to any of

It is therefore logical that back-up relays should not

Page 10 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

 The system is only as strong as the weakest link!

Page 11 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 12 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 13 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 14 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Solid earthing Low-impedance

Page 15 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 16 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 17 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

 Reliability dependability (availability)

 Security stable for all operating conditions , high security = low

 Speed high speed minimizes damage

 Selectivity trip the minimum number of circuit breakers

 Sensitivity notice smallest fault value

Page 18 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 19 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

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Page 26 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

I> I> I>

I> I> I>

Page 27 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Z< Z< Z<

Page 28 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Line Time-graded protection

Transformer Differential protection

Busbar Reverse interlock

Motor Time-graded protection

Page 29 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Page 30 02-05-2007 PTD EA Power Transmission & Distribution, India

Power plant Transformer Switching Line Load