METR2000 Fundamentals of Mechatronics Lecture Notes

METR2000
Fundamentals of Mechatronics
Lecture Notes
Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Academic Year: 2018-2019
Course Coordinator Name: Dr. Tarek Selmi
Speed Control Systems and Servomotors + Position
Industrial Sensors, Their working principles and
calibration
Lecture Notes-Chapter#5
Course Learning Outcomes

Asses the importance of sensors in Mechatronics systems
Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Academic Year: 2018-2019
Course Coordinator Name: Dr Tarek Selmi
References
Essential Reading:
1. Modern Control Technology: Components and Systems, Christopher
T. Kilian, 2nd Edition, Thompson Learning, 2000.
2. Automation, Production Systems and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, M.P. Groover. 4th Edition, 2014, Pearson/prentice Hall.
3. Mechatronics: Principles and Applications, G. Onwubolu, Elseviour,
2005.
05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

Introduction
• Positioning can be performed by many diversified methods.
Recently, AC servo methods which offer many advantages are often
introduced.
• In the positioning system of an AC servo method, a position
controller, servo amplifier and servo motor are generally required.
The representative system configuration is shown below.

Position controller

Components of Positioning Control and
Their Roles: Power board
• Improves the power factor and cuts noise.
• Protects the power circuit.

Their Roles: Servo Amplifier
• Rectifies the AC power of the main circuit into the DC power in the
converter, and smooths it in the smoothing circuit. When the DC
power is converted into AC power in the inverter, the current
supplied to the servo motor is changed by the PWM (pulse width
modulation) control in the control circuit.
• The deviation counter receives and counts the command pulses
from the positioning controller, subtracts the feedback pulses from
them, then drives the servo motor until the accumulated pulse
number becomes 0.

Their Roles: Servo Amplifier

Their Roles: Position controller
• Outputs the positioning speed and the movement quantity in
command pulses to the servo amplifier.
• Transfers signals between the programmable controller.
• Controls return to the zero point.

Their Roles: Servo motor
• Dedicated to high speed response optimal to positioning control,
has large start torque, large maximum torque and wide variable
speed range.

Components of Positioning Control and Their Roles: Sensor,
actuator, auxiliary device
• The actuator (moving part drive mechanism) is equipped with speed
reducer, timing belt, ball screw and limit switch.
• Diversified auxiliary devices are also controlled in accordance with
positioning.
• The PLC or the positioning controller also controls auxiliary
devices.
• The auxiliary device operation completed signal is output to the
PLC or the position controller.

Components of Positioning Control and Their Roles: Sensor,
actuator, auxiliary device

Dynamic brake function
When a circuit inside the servo amplifier is disabled by a power
interruption in the AC power of the main circuit or actuation of the
protective circuit, the terminals of the servo motor are short-circuited
via resistors, the rotation energy is consumed as heat, then the motor
immediately stops without free run .

Industrial Sensors, Their working
principles and calibration

What is Sensing ?
• Collect information about the world
• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an
environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement
• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of
energy from one form to another

Acceleration, Shock and Vibration Sensors
• Accelerometers are sensing transducers that provide an output
proportional to acceleration, vibration and shock. The most popular
class of accelerometers is the piezoelectric accelerometer. This type
of sensor is capable of measuring a wide range of dynamic events.

Acceleration, Shock and Vibration Sensors
• The active elements of the accelerometer are the piezoelectric elements. The
elements act as a spring, which has a stiffness k, and connect the base of
the accelerometer to the seismic masses. When an input is present at the
base of the accelerometer, a force (F) is created on piezoelectric material
proportional to the applied acceleration (a) and size of the seismic mass (m).
(The sensor is governed by Newton’s law of motion F = m.a.) The force
experienced by the piezoelectric crystal is proportional to the seismic mass
times the input acceleration. The more mass or acceleration, the higher the
applied force and the more electrical output from the crystal.

Capacitive Accelerometers
• Capacitive accelerometers are similar in operation to piezo-resistive
accelerometers. Several different types of capacitive elements exist. One
type, which utilizes a metal sensing diaphragm and alumina capacitor
plates:

• When this element is placed in the Earth’s gravitational field or is
accelerated due to vibration on a test structure, the spring-mass
experiences a force. This force is proportional to the mass of the spring-
mass and is based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
• F = m.a where F = inertial force acting on spring-mass,
m = distributed mass of spring-mass, and
a = acceleration experienced by sensing element
Consequently, the spring-mass deflects linearly according to the Spring
Equation: X = F/k where X = deflection of spring-mass, k = stiffness of spring-
mass

• The resulting deflection of the spring-mass causes the distance between the
electrodes and the spring-mass to vary. These variations have a direct effect
on each of the opposing capacitor gaps according to the following equation.
• C2 = AE [ε / (d + X)] and,
• C2 = AE [ε / (d – X)] where C = element capacitance
AE = surface area of electrode
ε = permittivity of air
d = distance between spring-mass and electrode

Electromagnetism in Sensing
• Before we get too far into electromagnetism, we begin with a review of the
properties of an inductor as used in electronic circuits. An inductor is a
passive circuit element that resists changes in current. The equation
governing its behavior is:
• where L is the inductance in units of henrys. As we can see from this
equation, there is a voltage across the inductor whenever the current
changes. The minus sign indicates that the voltage (V) opposes the change
in current (I), which is to say that whenever an external circuit tries to
cause more current to flow, it must provide a voltage in order to overcome
the voltage that arises in the inductor.

• If we assume that the current and voltage are both oscillating quantities:
If we recognize Ohm’s Law here (V = IR), then the effective resistance of the inductor
is “R” = –(i ω L). As was the case for a capacitor (“R” = 1/(i ω C)), the i implies that
there is a shift in phase between voltage and current, and the ω implies that the
effective resistance increases with frequency.

• How big is a typical inductance? The inductance of a coil is given by:

whenever electrical charges move (current), a magnetic field is created. For the
simple case of a straight wire, there is a magnetic field around the wire given by:
Whenever charges move in magnetic fields, there are forces on those charges. The
expression for this force (known as the Lorentz force) is:

Finally, Faraday’s law of induction states that whenever the magnetic field that
passes through a loop of wire is changed, there will be a voltage induced in the coil.
We define the flux, φ (phi), as the product of the area of the loop and the component
of the magnetic field perpendicular to the surface of the loop. The induced voltage is
therefore:

Electromagnetism in Sensing:
Sensor Applications
A good example of the Faraday law of induction is illustrated in the below Figure.
Here a loop of wire is positioned between the pole faces of a permanent magnet. The
magnetic field is confined to the region between the pole faces, and is essentially
zero elsewhere. Therefore, the magnetic flux through the loops in this situation is
simply the area of the loop that is within the magnetic field multiplied by the value
of the field: Since dx/dt is the velocity of

Therefore, the voltage is:
the coil, we see that this
configuration is useful as a
motion detector, and useless
as a position detector.

Flow and Level Sensors
Flow rate is typically obtained by first measuring the velocity of a fluid in a pipe, duct, or
other structure and then multiplying by the known cross-sectional area at the point of
measurement. Methods for measuring airflow include thermal anemometers, differential
pressure measurement systems, and vortex shedding sensors. Methods used for measuring
liquid flow include differential pressure measurement systems, vortex shedding sensors,
positive displacement flow sensors, turbine based flow sensors, magnetic flow sensors, and
ultrasonic flow sensors.

Force, Load and Weight Sensors
Measurement of a force, load, or a weight can be accomplished by a multitude of different
sensors. While other technologies exist, the most commonly used sensors are generally
based on either piezoelectric quartz crystal or strain gage sensing elements. Before
proceeding, it is important to recognize the difference between force, load, and weight, as
these terms are often incorrectly used interchangeably with one another.
Force: The measurement of the interaction between bodies.
Load: The measurement of the force exerted on a body.
Weight: The measurement of gravitational forces acting on a body.

Force, Load and Weight Sensors:
Quartz Sensors
Quartz force sensors are ideally designed and suited for the measurement of dynamic
oscillating forces, impact, or high speed compression/tension forces. The basic design
utilizes the piezoelectric principle, where applied mechanical stresses are converted into an
electrostatic charge that accumulates on the surface of the crystal

Quartz Sensors
Quartz force sensors are ideally designed and suited for the measurement of dynamic
oscillating forces, impact, or high speed compression/tension forces. The basic design
utilizes the piezoelectric principle, where applied mechanical stresses are converted into an
electrostatic charge that accumulates on the surface of the crystal

Piezoelectric Force Sensor Construction
The basic mechanical construction of general purpose quartz forces sensors consist of thin
quartz discs that are “sandwiched” between upper and lower base plates. A relatively
elastic, beryllium-copper stud (or sometimes a sleeve) holds the upper and lower plates
together and preloads the crystals. Preloading of the crystals is required to assure that the
upper and lower plates are in intimate contact with the quartz crystals, ensuring good
linearity and the capability for tension as well as compression measurements.

Piezoelectric Force Sensor types

Strain Gage Sensors
Sensors based on foil strain gage technology are ideally designed for the precise
measurement of a static weight or a quasi-dynamic load or force. For this type of sensors,
the amount of change in resistance indicates the magnitude of deformation in the
transducer structure and hence the load that is applied.

Strain Gage Sensors: Types

Optical and Radiation Sensors
Detection of light is a basic need for everything from devices to plants and animals. In the
case of animals, light detection systems are very highly specialized, and often operate very
near to thermodynamic limits to detection. Device researchers have worked on techniques
for light detection for many years, and have developed devices that offer excellent
performance as well.
Light is a quantum-mechanical phenomena. It comes in discrete particles called photons.

Optical and Radiation Sensors
Light detectors may be broken into two basic categories. The so-called quantum detectors
that convert incoming radiation directly into an electron in a semiconductor device, and
process the resulting current with electronic circuitry. The thermal detectors simply absorb
the energy and operate by measuring the change in temperature with a thermometer.

Optical and Radiation Sensors:
Quantum Detectors
In all of the quantum detectors, the photon is absorbed and an electron is liberated in the
structure with the energy of the photon. Photodiodes may be biased and operated in two
basic modes: photovoltaic and photoconductive as shown in the below figures:

Optical and Radiation Sensors:
Thermal Detectors
Thermal detectors operate by absorbing the infrared radiation and measuring the
temperature rise of the detector with a thermometer. Generally, the performance of thermal
detectors is limited by the availability of sensitive and small heat capacity thermometers.
Assume we have a thermometer that is a thermistor with a temperature coefficient given
by:

Position and Motion Sensors
As their name implies, position sensors provide position feedback. They are able to
perform precise motion control, encoding and counting functions by determining the
presence or absence of a target or by detecting its motion, speed, direction or distance.
Position sensors detect a target object, a person, a substance or the disturbance of a
magnetic or an electrical field and convert that physical parameter to an electrical output to
indicate the target’s position.

Limit Switches
Limit switches are electromechanical contact devices. Easy to understand and apply, they
are the cost-effective switches of choice for detecting objects that can be touched.

Resistive Position Sensors
Potentiometers are passive devices, meaning they require no power supply or additional
circuitry to perform their basic linear or rotary position sensing function. They are typically
operated in one of two basic modes: rheostat and voltage divider (true potentiometric
operation).

Magnetic Position Sensors

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METR2000

Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Course Learning Outcomes

Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• Positioning can be performed by many diversified methods.

Recently, AC servo methods which offer many advantages are often

• In the positioning system of an AC servo method, a position

controller, servo amplifier and servo motor are generally required.

The representative system configuration is shown below.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• Improves the power factor and cuts noise.

• Protects the power circuit.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

converter, and smooths it in the smoothing circuit. When the DC

power is converted into AC power in the inverter, the current

supplied to the servo motor is changed by the PWM (pulse width

modulation) control in the control circuit.

• The deviation counter receives and counts the command pulses

from the positioning controller, subtracts the feedback pulses from

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

command pulses to the servo amplifier.

• Transfers signals between the programmable controller.

• Controls return to the zero point.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• The actuator (moving part drive mechanism) is equipped with speed

reducer, timing belt, ball screw and limit switch.

• Diversified auxiliary devices are also controlled in accordance with

• The PLC or the positioning controller also controls auxiliary

• The auxiliary device operation completed signal is output to the

PLC or the position controller.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

interruption in the AC power of the main circuit or actuation of the

protective circuit, the terminals of the servo motor are short-circuited

immediately stops without free run .

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an

environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement

• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of

energy from one form to another

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• Accelerometers are sensing transducers that provide an output

proportional to acceleration, vibration and shock. The most popular

class of accelerometers is the piezoelectric accelerometer. This type

of sensor is capable of measuring a wide range of dynamic events.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

the accelerometer to the seismic masses. When an input is present at the

base of the accelerometer, a force (F) is created on piezoelectric material

(The sensor is governed by Newton’s law of motion F = m.a.) The force

experienced by the piezoelectric crystal is proportional to the seismic mass

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

• Capacitive accelerometers are similar in operation to piezo-resistive

accelerometers. Several different types of capacitive elements exist. One

type, which utilizes a metal sensing diaphragm and alumina capacitor

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

accelerated due to vibration on a test structure, the spring-mass

experiences a force. This force is proportional to the mass of the spring-