METR2000 Fundamentals of Mechatronics Lecture Notes

METR2000
Fundamentals of Mechatronics
Lecture Notes
Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Academic Year: 2018-2019
Course Coordinator Name: Dr. Tarek Selmi
Industrial sensors DATA MEASUREMENTS AND
TRANSDUCERS
Lecture Notes-Chapter#6
Course Learning Outcomes

Asses the importance of sensors in Mechatronics systems
Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Academic Year: 2018-2019
Course Coordinator Name: Dr Tarek Selmi
References
Essential Reading:
1. Modern Control Technology: Components and Systems, Christopher
T. Kilian, 2nd Edition, Thompson Learning, 2000.
2. Automation, Production Systems and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, M.P. Groover. 4th Edition, 2014, Pearson/prentice Hall.
3. Mechatronics: Principles and Applications, G. Onwubolu, Elseviour,
2005.
05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

Introduction
• To understand the data-gathering process, you must first
understand how instrumentation and data-collecting devices
interpret data readings. These devices can interpret data sampling
readings four different ways, each with a different meaning. These
methods for interpreting information include:
• mean
• median
• mode
• standard deviation

Introduction
• Mean: The mean is the average value of a set of readings. This
value is useful in applications that require an estimation of future
or expected readings. To illustrate the mean, let’s use an
instrument that emits a signal at set time intervals (every 10
seconds). This signal ranges from 2 to 20 mV and represents the
mean value of the measurements taken during the 10-second time
interval. That is, each signal’s value is the average of the readings
taken since the last signal.

Introduction
• Let’s suppose that the instrument last emitted a 13 mV signal and
that it will send another signal in 10 seconds. Meanwhile, the
instrument collects data every two seconds, resulting in values of
14 mV, 14.5 mV, 15 mV, 14.7 mV, and 14.8 mV. The mean of these
readings, expressed as , is defined as:

Introduction
• Therefore:

Introduction
• Median: The median is the middle value of a set of readings that
are organized in ascending order. The following equations define
the median:

Introduction

Introduction
Mode: The mode is the most frequent value or values in a set of data.
The mode value for the following set of instrumentation readings—14
mV, 14.5 mV, 14 mV, 14.5 mV and 14.5mV—is 14.5 mV, because it is
the most frequent value. If six readings had been taken and the sixth
one was 14 mV, two mode values would have existed, 14.5 mV and 14
mV (three occurrences of each).

Introduction
Standard Deviation: Often, an application requires information not only
about the mean value of a set of process readings, but also about how
these readings are distributed in relation to the mean. The standard
deviation provides valuable information about a group of data, thus
aiding in the quantitative evaluation of the sample measurements.

TRANSDUCER MEASUREMENTS
This section deals primarily with two measuring techniques that are
used to implement transducer circuits. These techniques involve the use
of bridge circuits and linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
mechanisms. For example, to detect pressure and changes in pressure,
you can use a strain gauge, which is based on the bridge circuit
technique, or a Bourdon tube, which is based on the LVDT mechanism
technique. A knowledge of how these transducer measurement circuits
work will give you a better perspective of not only how they are used, but
also where functional errors occur when measurement problems arise.

BRIDGE CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES
Bridge circuits use resistive elements to sense measurement changes.
Depending on how the circuit is configured, the bridge will change the
voltage or current of its output in proportion to changes in its resistive
measurement element. This resistance change generally creates a bridge
imbalance. Under normal (balanced) operation of a bridge circuit, the
current that passes through one section of a current-sensitive bridge is
the same as that in the other section (or in a voltage-sensitive bridge, the
voltage differential between the two sections is zero).

BRIDGE CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES
An imbalance occurs when the resistance of one element changes, thus
creating a current or voltage offset that is proportional to the resistance
change. The bridge circuit utilizes this offset measurement to determine
the value of the measured variable.

EXAMPLE
For the voltage-sensitive circuit shown in the below Figure, find (a) the
equation that describes the voltage differential measurement between
point A and point B and (b) the bridge resistance ratio when the voltage
differential is 0 (balanced state).

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

Current-Sensitive Bridge.
A current-sensitive bridge creates a current flow change through the
output of the bridge, that is, between point A and point B (refer to the
previous Figure, Slide 13). The current flow is the result of a bridge
imbalance created by resistance changes in the measuring element. The
other resistors in the bridge have known, fixed values.
When current changes are being measured, the detecting device D has a
very low resistance RD, allowing current to flow from point A to B
through the detector.

The following equation describes the current that flows through a
current-sensitive bridge’s detector as a result of a bridge imbalance:
The term R4B is the resistance value when the bridge is balanced. The
following example illustrates how this equation is used to obtain a
current proportional to the change in resistance.

A bridge circuit uses a thermistor with a nominal resistance of 10KΏ to
measure small changes in temperature (see the below Figure). An
amplifier input module, which has an input impedance of 300Ώ,
measures small changes in current. What is the current if a change in
temperature results in a 10% change in resistance?

SOLUTION
The resistance of the thermistor (R4) changes 10% due to temperature
change, which translates into an R4 value of 11KΏ (10KΏ + 1KΏ). The
term ΔR4 is the absolute value of the difference between R 4B and the new
value of R4 due to the measurement change. Therefore, the difference in
thermistor resistance is calculated as:

SOLUTION

LVDT TECHNIQUES
A linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) is an
electromechanical mechanism
that provides a voltage reference
that is proportional to the
displacement of a core inside a
coil.

LVDT TECHNIQUES
An AC voltage, when applied to the primary coil, creates an induced
voltage in the secondary coils of an LVDT. As the LVDT’s core (which is
made of a magnetic material) moves, the voltage at the output of the
secondary coil changes. The induced voltage created by the core movement
and the way the secondary coils are wound determine the value of the
voltage change.

LVDT TECHNIQUES

LVDT TECHNIQUES
Modern LVDTs provide demodulation, or rectification, circuits to convert
the secondary output into a DC voltage signal. This voltage signal is in
linear proportion to the core movement within its range. The resultant
voltage when the core is at its starting position is +V; when the core is at
its end position the resultant voltage is –V. When the core is at the middle,
it provides a null, or zero, voltage output.

LVDT TECHNIQUES

EXAMPLE
Graphically illustrate the position of an LVDT core that has a total
displacement range of 20 inches and an output of ±10 VDC.
SOLUTION
The below Figure shows the graph for this LVDT core.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
(RTDS)
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are temperature transducers
made of conductive wire elements. The most common types of wires used
in RTDs are platinum, nickel, copper, and nickel-iron. In an RTD, the
resistance of the conductive wires increases linearly with an increase in
the temperature being measured; for this reason, RTDs are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient.

(RTDS)
As shown in the below Figure, an RTD element may be located away from
its bridge circuit. In this configuration, the user must be aware of the lead
wire resistance created by the wire connecting the RTD with the bridge
circuit. The lead wire resistance causes the total resistance in the RTD arm
of the bridge to increase, since the lead wire resistance adds to the RTD
resistance. If the RTD circuit does not receive proper lead wire
compensation, it will provide an erroneous measurement.

(RTDS)
Figure below presents a typical wire compensation method used to balance
lead wire resistance. The lead resistances of wires L1 and L2 are identical
because they are made of the same material. These two resistances, RL1
and RL2, are added to R2 and RRTD, respectively. This adds the wire
resistance to two adjacent sides of the bridge, thereby compensating for
the resistance of the lead wire in the RTD measurement. The equations in
Figure 13-12 represent the bridge before and after compensation. Note that
RL3 has no influence on the bridge circuit since it is connected to the
detector (e.g., input module, amplifier, etc.).

(RTDS)

(RTDS)
As mentioned previously, the changes in RTD resistance are proportional
to changes in temperature. The following equation defines these resistance
changes:

THERMISTORS
Like RTDs, thermistors are temperature transducers that exhibit changes
in internal resistance proportional to changes in temperature. Thermistors
are made of semiconductor materials, such as oxides of cobalt, nickel,
manganese, iron, and titanium. These semiconductor materials exhibit a
temperature-versus-resistance behavior that is opposite of the behavior of
RTD conducting materials. As the temperature increases, the resistance of
a thermistor decreases; therefore, a thermistor is said to have a negative
temperature coefficient. Although most thermistors have negative
coefficients, some do have positive temperature coefficients.

THERMISTORS

THERMISTORS
A thermistor’s resistance as a function of temperature can be defined by:

EXAMPLE
A thermistor has a resistance value of 100 KΩ at 3°C and a β constant of
3900°K. At what temperature (°C) will the thermistor’s resistance be 20 Ω?

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

FLOW TRANSDUCERS
Flow transducers measure the flow of materials in a process. This flow of
materials can be in solid, gas, or liquid form. All flow control applications
utilize the term Q, or rate of flow, to define flow measurement in the
system.

FLOW TRANSDUCERS
where:

EXAMPLE
A conveyor transports material that is weighed on a platform 2 meters in
length. A load cell, which is connected to an analog input module through
a bridge circuit and an amplifier, must weigh 50 kgs of the material. The
required flow is 1200 kgs/min. Find the speed at which the conveyor must
run to obtain the required flow. Also, suggest how to control the conveyor
so that the flow rate remains constant

SOLUTION

MOTION DETECTION FLUID FLOW METERS
The turbine flow meter is one of the most common types of motion
detection flow meters. This device is used in applications that measure
liquid and gas flows, as well as in applications with very low flow rates.
Turbine meters are widely used in petrochemical and pipeline transfers of
petroleum flows. Special types of turbine flow meters are also used in
liquid oxygen and nitrogen gas-metering applications.

EXAMPLE
The flow rate is given as 60 gpm and the area of the pipe is 2 square
inches. Find the velocity of the flow to be displayed in feet per second.
SOLUTION

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS
Vibration is defined as the oscillatory movement of a mass about a
reference position characterized by displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. Displacement (s) is the distance that the mass moves from its
reference position in meters, velocity (v) is the speed at which the mass
moves in meters per second (m/sec), and acceleration (a) is the rate of
change of the mass’s velocity per second (m/sec2).




EXAMPLE
A steam pipe in a heat batching system (see Figure) vibrates at a frequency
of 8 cycles per second (8 Hz) with a peak displacement of 10 mm (1 cm or
0.01 m). (a) Find and plot the displacement equation indicating the period,
and (b) calculate the peak acceleration in m/sec 2 and its equivalent in g
units.

SOLUTION
(a) The Figure below presents the graph of displacement versus time of
vibration, which is given mathematically by the equation:

SOLUTION

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METR2000

Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

Course Learning Outcomes

Lecturer Name: Dr Tarek Selmi

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

understand how instrumentation and data-collecting devices

interpret data readings. These devices can interpret data sampling

readings four different ways, each with a different meaning. These

methods for interpreting information include:

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

value is useful in applications that require an estimation of future

or expected readings. To illustrate the mean, let’s use an

instrument that emits a signal at set time intervals (every 10

seconds). This signal ranges from 2 to 20 mV and represents the

mean value of the measurements taken during the 10-second time

taken since the last signal.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

that it will send another signal in 10 seconds. Meanwhile, the

instrument collects data every two seconds, resulting in values of

readings, expressed as , is defined as:

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

are organized in ascending order. The following equations define

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

The mode value for the following set of instrumentation readings—14

mV (three occurrences of each).

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

these readings are distributed in relation to the mean. The standard

deviation provides valuable information about a group of data, thus

aiding in the quantitative evaluation of the sample measurements.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

used to implement transducer circuits. These techniques involve the use

of bridge circuits and linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

mechanisms. For example, to detect pressure and changes in pressure,

technique, or a Bourdon tube, which is based on the LVDT mechanism

technique. A knowledge of how these transducer measurement circuits

also where functional errors occur when measurement problems arise.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

voltage or current of its output in proportion to changes in its resistive

measurement element. This resistance change generally creates a bridge

imbalance. Under normal (balanced) operation of a bridge circuit, the

current that passes through one section of a current-sensitive bridge is

voltage differential between the two sections is zero).

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

An imbalance occurs when the resistance of one element changes, thus

creating a current or voltage offset that is proportional to the resistance

change. The bridge circuit utilizes this offset measurement to determine

the value of the measured variable.

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

equation that describes the voltage differential measurement between

differential is 0 (balanced state).

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

05/18/2021 Dr. Tarek SELMI

imbalance created by resistance changes in the measuring element. The

other resistors in the bridge have known, fixed values.