Lectures 19-20

The Modes of Discourse

• 1.Discourse Modes
• 2.Rhetorical Modes
• 3.Open Discourse
• 4.Philosophical Discourse
• Modes of discourse, also known as rhetorical modes,
are concepts that describe the different purposes of
communication and genres of composition.
• How an author or speaker approaches a particular work,
frames the presentation of it, and outlines what to
include depends on the desired response of the audience.
• The desired response dictates which mode of discourse,
or formalized approach to presenting an idea, is most
appropriate.
• Most often, the term "modes of discourse" is
used to describe types of essays or other
written works.
• When studying composition, especially
regarding English composition and 
English literature, educators teach four major
discursive modes, classified as exposition,
narrative, description, and argument.
• While theses genre labels are generally applied to
written works, the concepts also apply to spoken
communication.
• Voice overs are considered narrative discourse.
• Expository and argumentative modes of discourse are
very similar.
• Primarily, the differences between exposition and
argument lie in the amount of preparation required.
Typically, an argumentative work requires more research
and empirical evidence than an expository work.
• Both modes involve investigating a topic, reviewing
and evaluating available information, then presenting
a clear view or argument regarding the topic.
• Authors and speakers typically use exposition or
argument to persuade an audience for or against a
particular point of view.
• Using modes of discourse, an author furthers the
purpose of written communication with specific
rhetorical approaches.
• Narrative essays and similar forms of
communication involve more storytelling than
expository or argumentative works.
• In terms of modes of discourse, a narrative
approach allows for more creativity, relying
less on research and more on the audience's
ability to relate to the writer or speaker.
• Rather than facts, figures, and evidence, narration
allows the creator to provide personal insight,
stories, and other experiential or anecdotal
examples to persuade an audience.
• Nonverbal gestures are part of discourse.
• Descriptive works cover a broad range of topics.
• An essay discussing the architecture of the Sistine
Chapel, for instance, would be an example of a
descriptive work.
• Like narratives, descriptive works allow for
more creativity than other modes. Unlike a
narrative, descriptive works do not have to
present personal insight.
• Instead, descriptive works provide a clear,
vivid mental image for the audience, relying on
the audience's own personal insight,
knowledge, and emotions to evoke certain
responses.
• Within each of the four major modes of
discourse, a speaker or an author furthers the
purpose of spoken or written communication
with specific rhetorical approaches.
• For example, an expository essay might
employ such methods as compare and contrast,
examples and case studies, or cause and effect.
• Similarly, an argumentative or persuasive
speech might employ classification and division.
• Effective use of rhetorical approaches within the
bounds of a particular mode of discourse helps
further an author's or speaker’s intended goal.
• Discourse might be carried out through text
messages.
• Rhetorical modes are ways of presenting a
subject to others in writing or by means of
speech. They are also known as modes of 
discourse.
• The term ‘rhetorical mode’ is a collective one
for all such means and can refer to the type of 
rhetorical device used and also to the means
of relaying it to others.
• All modes and means are derived from
rhetoric and an ancient art of portraying an
opinion to others. This is seen in the great
classical orators such as Cicero.
• Rhetoric is chiefly one-way, with no
discussion, and is a platform for relaying one
person’s ideas, beliefs or experiences.
• Great orators are influential people who are
able to change the way their listeners or
readers think.
• This can be for the betterment of humanity or
for the worse, as shown by contrasting
Abraham Lincoln with Adolf Hitler, both of
whom were extremely influential during their
time.
• The rhetorical modes used by orators and
writers vary in complexity. Simple rhetorical
modes include simple descriptions and
narratives.
• More complex ones seek to compare and
contrast examples or to provide a detailed, if
one-sided, argument about a particular topic.
• Description takes a single idea, person or
object and describes it/him/her. It provides a
simple illustration of the subject matter
without going into too much depth.
• Extended definition is a rhetorical mode that
builds upon the description and seeks to
provide additional details and analysis.
• After a brief introduction, the extended definition will
use examples, provide history and background, and
draw a conclusion.
• Narration and exposition are rhetorical modes that tell
a story.
• These can either be short or extended.
• Simple narrations combine linked events or a single
story and are often used to make a
more/philosophical/political point or to provide
inspiration, explanation or warning.
• Narration occurs in speeches, but also in
literary forms such as biography, 
autobiography and personal letters.
• Comparing and contrasting are rhetorical
modes that take two or more subjects, people,
and ideas and match them against one another.
• The writer or orator uses comparing and contrasting
to find links or differences. This mode employs
more analysis and argument than simpler ones.
• Argument is perhaps the most recognizable of
rhetorical modes.
• It is employed most often by politicians like Cicero
or religious leaders like the Pope to put across a
single point of view with the intention of persuading
people to agree.
• An argument can be an educated guess or it
can be a manufactured attempt to persuade,
but usually includes examples, narrations,
statistics and analysis before drawing an
inevitable conclusion.
• Simple rhetorical modes include simple
descriptions and narratives.
• Open discourse is a conversation when all
possible information can be accessed by those
taking part.
• It is also about the degree to which it is possible
for any discourse to exist without controls.
• Open discourse is determined by a number of
factors, including access and quality, as well as
the genuine openness of the dialogue.
• Some people debate whether total open discourse
is actually possible.
• Discourse is the discussion of ideas. T
• he formation of genuine dialogue, followed by
the formation of consensus, is dependent on
discourse.
• Not all discourse has the potential to become
fully open; for example, rhetoric is the attempt to
persuade others of one belief.
• This means that only one opinion is presented and
listeners to not have immediate access to other
opinions and details that might contradict it.
• Whether discourse is open or not is dependent upon a
number of factors.
• These include access to information, the equality of
access, and the quality of the information. Access can
be defined by the amount of information available to
those involved or those wanting to be involved and the
means by which the information is made available.
• Equality of access is defined as all people having the same
level of access regardless of position, status, and social
background.
• Both access and equality of access are regulated by
discourse control.
• Access to information is largely controlled by the people
and organizations that have the information. Those
controlling the information or the debate often have the
control, unless government law forces them to relinquish
control through the freedom of speech or the freedom of
information.
• For example, there can be no real debate on the
economy or on immigration if government withholds
information.
• Information requests can also be open or closed. For
example, an ideologically motivated individual may
take only the information that is compatible with his
or her ideology, even when all information is freely
available.
• This form of discourse control is bottom-up rather
than top-down.
• An open conversation also allows for the
discussion of topics that many feel are
unsavory or non-mainstream.
• For example, voicing opinions on marriage,
religion, or abortion may offend some people
as many hold completely different views on
these topics; however, open discourse on all
subjects, even tough ones, is important to keep
discussions relevant.
• The absence of open discourse can make topics
stagnant.
• The Internet has opened up the access that many
people have to information.
• Whether it truly counts as open discourse or not is
open to debate, however.
• Taken as a whole, this openness allows for all opinions
and a lot of information to be found, but each singular
piece of social media or website may fail many
criteria set out for open discourse.
• Questions also remain over the quality of
information available on the Internet.
• It has been argued that truly open discourse is
impossible because there are too many
possible filters determining what can or cannot
be discussed, what information is available,
the quality of the discourse, and people's
access to it.
• According to the same trail of thought, it is
also impossible to have closed discourse, the
total absence of access.
• If both are impossible to achieve, then it
suggests that all kinds of discourse are
muddled somewhere in the middle.
• Philosophical discourse is a process by which
two or more people discuss and communicate
about various topics and concepts within 
philosophy.
• This can occur in a context dedicated to the
exploration and study of philosophy, or it can
be part of a discussion on another subject, such
as art or literature.
• Philosophical discourse often happens in a
structured way, with various individuals who
have studied philosophy and who talk about
these subjects with great experience and
background in the field.
• It can also arise as a natural process, however,
as people discuss the realities of the world and
try to understand the larger human experience.
• Much like any other type of discourse,
philosophical discourse basically refers to a
form of communication between two or more
people.
• This group component is essential to this idea,
since it regards more than just an isolated
scholar studying different philosophical
concepts or ideas.
• Philosophical discourse can happen through
verbal communication, such as a dialog between
scholars or a group discussion among students
and peers who have studied philosophy.
• It can also occur through non-verbal
communication, such as a series of essays
written between philosophy professors, or an
article written by someone that is intended for
peer review and publication.
• One common way in which philosophical
discourse can occur is in a scholastic setting,
such as a philosophy classroom.
• This is a natural environment for such
communication, and usually goes beyond the
authoritative process of an instructor standing
at the front of a room and lecturing to students.
• Philosophical discourse often requires that
students are an active and involved part of the
process, demanding careful consideration and
deliberate thought about a subject.
• Such conversations can involve a number of
scholastic concepts and ideas, including
different movements and figures within
philosophy and how these ideas relate to each
other in a larger context.
• There are also informal settings in which philosophical
discourse can occur between groups of people.
• Any setting in which individuals come together to
discuss the reality of human existence and attempt to
put such experiences into words is, essentially, a forum
for philosophical discourse.
• Such conversations do not strictly require a
background in philosophy, since people are often able
to form their own ideas and put into words their
general view of experience and life.
• These informal conversations may lack the
context and frame of reference that scholars
and students have, but this is not always a
drawback.
• Ignorance of established ideas and concepts
may allow people to more easily form their
own ideas and construct a world view that is
more intimately meaningful.