Chapter 4

Evaporation Process
Introduction
 Vapor from a boiling liquid solution is removed and a more
concentrated solution remain (Majority of cases : removal of water
from an aqueous solution).
 Typical examples: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar, sodium
chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk and orange juice.
 Processing factors (the physical and chemical properties of the
solution being concentrated and of the vapor being removed bear
greatly on the type of evaporatoe used and the pressure and
temperature of the process. Some of the properties which affect the
processing methods include:
i) Concentration in the liquid: Adequate circulation and/or turbulence is
used to avoid heat-transfer coefficient low.
ii) Solubility: Solubility limit of the material may be exceeded and crystals
may form.
iii) Temperature sensitivity of materials: Certain products (i.e.
biological materials) are temperature-sensitive and can
degrade at higher temperature/after prolonged heating.
iv) Foaming or frothing: i.e. some fatty-acid solutions form a
foam or froth during boiling. This foam accompanies the
vapor coming out of the evaporator and entrainment losses
occur.
v) Pressure and temperature: The higher the operating pressure
of the evaporator, the higher the temperature at boiling. As
the concentration of the dissolved material in solution
increases by evaporation, the temperature of boiling may rise
(phenomenon called boiling-point rise or elevation). Thus, it is
necessary to operate under 1 atm pressure (under vacuum).
vi) Scale deposition and materials of construction: Deposition of
solid material (due to decomposition/decrease in solubility)
on the heating surface could reduce overall heat-transfer
coefficient. Thus, materials chosen is important to minimize
corrosion.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators
 Overall heat transfer coefficient, U depends mainly on the steam-side
condensing coefficient, the solution-side forced-convection or boiling
coefficient and a scale or fouling resistance on the solution side.
 Additional wall resistance is present in glass-lined evaporators.
 Conduction resistance of the metal wall of the heat-exchanger tubes is
negligible.
 Typical heat-transfer coefficients for various evaporators

Overall U
Type of Evaporator W / m2 . K Btu / h . Ft2 .
°F
Short-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500

Horizontal-tube, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500

Long-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-4000 200-700
Long-tube vertical, forced circulation 2300-11 000 400-2000
Agitated film 680-2300 120-400
Calculations Methods for Single-Effect
Evaporators
∆T K (°F) : difference in
Heat and material balances for evaporators: temperature between the
q  UAT condensing stream and the
boiling liquid in the
evaporator.
Vapor V
Feed F T1, yv, hv q (W) (btu / h)
TF, xF, hF P1
*If solution to be evaporated
is dilute (likw water), then 1
Steam S T1 kg of steam condensing will
evaporate 1 kg of vapor.
Ts, Hs
Condensate S
Ts, hs

Concentrated liquid L
T1, xL, hL

Steam gives off only its latent heat   H S  hS
At steady state, rate of mass in = rate of mass out
Vapor V is in equilibrium with the
liquid L, T of vapor and liquid are
the same. Pressure P1 is the
saturation vapor pressure of the
liquid composition xL at its boiling
point T1. This assumed no boiling

F  L V point rise.

Balance on the solute (solid) FxF  LxL

 Total heat entering = total heat leaving
 Heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor +
heat in condensed steam
 No heat lost by radiation or convection
FhF  SH S  LhL  VHV  ShS FhF  S  LhL  VH V

Then, q heat transferred in the evaporator is: q  S ( H S  hS )  S

Some approximation are made in order to make a heat
balance:
Steam table (using the temperature of the boiling solution
T1-esposed surface temperature).
If the heat capacities CPF of the liquid feed and CPL of the
product are known, they can be used to calculate the
enthalphies (neglecting the heat of dilution).
Example 8.4-1 Heat transfer area in single-effect
evaporator
A continuous single effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg /
h of a 1.0 wt% salt solution entering at 311.0 K (37.8 °C) to a
final concentration of 1.5 wt%. The vapor space of the
evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm abs) and the steam
supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa. The overall coefficient U =
1704 W / m2.K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid
product and the heat-transfer area required. Assume that, since
it is dilute, the solution has the same boiling point as water.
Calculation method for single effect evaporator
Vapor, V
Feed, F T1, yV, HV
TF, xF, hF

P1
, T1 Condensate S
Steam, S TS, hS
TS, HS
Concentrated liquid L
T1, xL, hL
1. Material balance: Determine unknown flow rate (ex. L
• Overall material balance (F = L + V)
and V)
• solute balance ( FxF = LxL)

2. Perform heat balance FhF  SH S  LH L  VH V  ShS Determine S,

hL = 0 (at
FH F  S  LhL  VH V datum T)
(Determine entalphy of feed, hF, λ, hL and Hv)

3. For heat balance, select boiling point of the dilute solution in the Determine T1
evaporator, ex bpt for water, at 100 °C or 373.2 K

4. For hF (hF = cPF (TF – T1): Assume heat capacity of feed, CPF = 4.14
kJ.kg.K (which is the heat capacity of water)
5. For HV = Latent heat of water at T1 (Steam table, Table B.5, Felder Rousseau)
6. Latent heat, λ: Ts and λ from Steam table, Felder Rousseau)

q  S  UAT
Determine U or A
T  TS  T1
Effect of processing variables on evaporator operation
 Effect of feed temperature
The inlet feed temperature (TF) has a large effect on the operation of evaporator.
Preheating the feed can reduce the size of evaporator heat-transfer area needed.

 Effect of pressure
Example: If the pressure were reduced to 41.4 kPa, the boiling point of water would
be 349.9 K and new ∆T is 383.2 – 349.9, or 33.3 K. A large decrease in heating
surface area would be obtained.

 Effect of steam pressure

Using higher-pressure, saturated steam increases ∆T, which decrease the size and cost
of evaporator.
Boiling-Point Rise (BPR) of Solutions
• In most cases, thermal properties of the solution being evaporated may differ
considerably from water.
• For strong solutions of dissolved solutes, the boiling point rise due to the solutes in the
solution usually cannot be predicted.
• Empirical law known as Duhring’s rule can be applied.
• Refer page 538 for duhring chart (to determine BPR) new T1

Entalphy-Concentration
• Heat of solution is large, cannot be neglected. Charts of Solutions
• Ex. Pellets of Naoh is dissolved in water, considerable T rise occurs > heat is evolved.
• Values of hF and hL can be determined from Fig. 8.4-3 (Page 540).
Discussion 1
A feed of 4535 kg/h of a 2.0 wt% salt solution at 311K enters
continuously a single effect evaporator and is being concentrated to
3.0 wt%. The evaporation is at atmospheric pressure and the area of
the evaporator is 69.7 m2. Saturated steam at 383.2K is supplied for
heating. Since the solution is dilute, it can be assumed to have the
same boiling point as water. The heat capacity of the feed can be taken
as cp = 4.10 kJ/kg.K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and liquid product
and the overall heat-transfer coefficient U.
 Discussion 2.
A continuous single effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg / h of a 1.0
wt% salt solution entering at 311.0 K (37.8 °C) to a final concentration
of 1.5 wt%. The vapor space of the evaporator is at 41.4 kPa and the
steam supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa (T = 110 °C). The overall
coefficient U = 1704 W / m2.K. Calculate the amounts of vapor and
liquid product and the heat-transfer area required. Assume that, since it
is dilute, the solution has the same boiling point as water.
Calculation
• Material Balance:V = 3024 kg/h ; L = 6048 kg/h
• Heat balance: 9072 (hF) + sλ = 3024 Hv
• 9072 (4.14)(37.8-76.6) + S
Λ (110 °C) = 2691.5 – 461.30 = 2230.2 kJ/kg (A.2-9)
Hv (76.6 °C) = Interpolation between 75-80 = 2317 kJ/kg

To determine T1 at different pressure:

38.58 kPa T = 75
P = 41.4 kPa T1 = 76.6 °C (A2.9)
47.39 kPa T = 80
• Heat balance: 9072 (hF) + sλ = 3024 Hv
S = 3799 kg/h
Q = UA∆T = S λ
1704 J / s.m2.K (A) (110 – 76.6)K = 3799 kg/h (2230.2 kJ/kg) [kJ/h]
A = 41.3 m2
Discussion 3 (Assignment 1)
A single effect evaporator is concentrating a feed of F = 9072 kg/h of a
10 wt% solution of NaOH in water to a product of 50 wt% solid. The
pressure of the saturated steam is 42 kPa (gauge) and the pressure in
the vapor space of the evaporator is 20 kPa (abs.). The overall heat
transfer coefficient is U = 1988 W/m2.K. Calculate the steam used, the
steam economy in kg vaporized / kg steam, and the area for:
i.Feed temperature of 17 °C
ii.Feed temperature of 50 °C
Calculation:
• BPR
• T1 =
• Appendix A.2-9  At P =20 kPa (abs) = T1 = 60.06 °C ? (BPR)
• T1 = 100.5 °C?
Duhring Line : T1 = 60.06 °C

Heat balance:
• hF (17 °C) =
• hL (100.5 °C) = 530-560 kJ/kg
Example 8.4-2
The pressure in an evaporator is given as 25.6 kPa and a solution of
30% NaOH is being boiled. Determine the boiling temperature of the
NaOH and the boiling point rise BPR of the solution over that of water
at the same pressure.
Step 1: Determine boiling point of water at 25.6 kPa (refer App 2)
Step 2: Use duhring lines to estimate boiling point of NaOH (based on
30% NaoH/boiling point of water)
Multiple Effect Evaporator
Calculation method for multiple-effect
evaporator
Evaporation of solution in a single-effect evaporator : wasteful since
the latent heat of vapor leaving the evaporator is usually not used.
To reduce the cost : multiple-effect evaporator are used in order to
recover the latent heat of the vapor leaving and re-use it.
To transfer heat from the condensing vapor to the boiling liquid in
this second effect, boiling temperature T2 must less than the
condensing temperature (pressure P2 in the second effect is lower
than P1 in the first effect. In a similar manner, P3 < P2.
Multiple-effect at steady state operation : flow rates and rate of
evaporation in each effect are constant.
 Temperature drops and capacity of multiple-effect
evaporators Vapor condenses in the second effect

Assumptions:
No boiling-point rise
No heat of solution
Neglecting sensible heat Feed
(needed to heat the feed
to the boiling point)

Condensate
Concentrated product

q1  U1 A1T1 q2  U 2 A2 T2 q3  U 3 A3T3

∆T1 = difference between the
condensing steam and the boiling point
of the liquid, TS – T1
q1  q2  q3
U1 A1T1  U 2 A2 T2  U 3 A3 T3
q
 U1T  U 2 T2  U 3 T3
A
 T  T1  T2  T3  TS  T3
1 / U1
T1   T ∆T1 is proportional to 1/U1
1 / U1  1 / U 2  1 / U 3
Capacity of multiple-effect evaporators
• Adding the value of q for each evaporator:

q  q1  q2  q3  U1 A1T1  U 2 A2 T2  U 3 A3 T3

q  UA(T1  T2  T3 )  UAT
Calculations for multiple-effect evaporators
• Normally, values to be obtained are :
 Area of heating surface in each effect
 The kg of steam per hour to be supplied
 Amount of vapor leaving each effect

• The given or known values are usually:

 Steam pressure to the first effect
 Final pressure in the vapor space of the last effect
 Feed conditions and flow to the first effect
 The final concentration in the liquid leaving the last effect
 Physical properties such as entalphies and/or heat capacities of the liquid and vapor
 Overall heat-transfer coefficients in each effect.
 Step-by-step calculations methods for triple
effect evaporators
1. Determine the boiling point in the last effect (from the known outlet
concentration and pressure in the last effect). If BPR present, determine from
duhring-line plot.
2. Total amount of vapor evaporated (overall material balance). [First trial : V 1 = V2 =
V3]. Total material balance on effects 1, 2 and 3 to obtain L1, L2 and L3. Calculate
solid concentration in each effect.
3. Estimate temperature drops ∆T1, ∆T2 and ∆T3 in the three effects. Calculate
boiling point in each effect. Estimate the pressure in effect 1 and 2 and determine
the BPR in each effect. Ʃ∆T for heat transfer without the superheat is obtained by
subtracting the sum of all three BPRs from the overall ∆T of TS-T3 (saturation).
Then, estimate ∆T1, ∆T2 , and ∆T3 and calculate the boiling point in each effect.
4. Calculate the amount vaporized and the flows of liquid in each effect (using heat
material balances). If the amounts vaporized differ appreciably from those assumed in
step 2, thus step 2, 3 and 4 can be repeated using the amounts of evaporation.
5. Calculate the value of q transferred in each effect. Using q = UA∆T for each effect,
calculate the areas A1, A2 and A3. Calculate average value Am by:

If areas are close to each other, calculation complete. If these area are not almost equal,
A1  A2  A3
m 
a second trial should beAperformed.
6. Trial 2 : Use new values of L1, L2, L3, V31, V2 and V3 calculated by the heat balance in
step 4. Calculate new solids concentration in each effect by solid balance on each
effect.
7. Obtain new values ∆T1’, ∆T2’, and ∆T3’ from:

T1 A1 T 'T2 A2
T 'T3 A3
T 1
'
2 3
Am Am Am
Sum ∆T1’, ∆T2’, and ∆T3’ must equal to original Ʃ∆T. Calculate boiling point in each effect.
If BPR present, determine the new BPR in the three effect using the new concentration from
step 6. New value of Ʃ∆T, subtract the sum of all three BPRs from the overall ∆T. Calculate
∆T’ (the value ∆T’ must be readjusted to the new Ʃ∆T value) . Then calculate boiling point
in each effect.
8. Repeat calculation starting with step 4 using the new ∆T’. Two trials are sufficient so that
areas are reasonably close to being equal.
Condensers for evaporators
• In multiple-effect evaporators, vapors from the last effect are usually
leaving under vacuum (less than atm pressure). Vapors must be
condensed and discharged as a liquid at atm pressure (using cooling
water to condense the vapors). Condenser : Surface condenser or
direct-contact condenser.

a)Surface condenser
Actual mixing of the condensate with condenser cooling water is
not desired (i.e. shell and tube condenser: vapor on the shell side
and cooling water in in multipass flow on the tube side.
b)Direct contact condenser
 Cooling water directly contacts and condenses the vapor.
 Common types : countercurrent barometric condenser
 Vapor enters the condenser and is condensed by rising upward
against a shower of cooling water droplets.
 Baromatic condenser : inexpensive and economical of water
consumption. It can maintain a vacuum corresponding to a
saturated vapor temperature within about 2.8 K.
 Simple heat balance (V = vapor flow to the condenser kg/h at
temperature TS; water flow is W kg/h at entering temperature of T1
and leaving temperature T2, HS : entalphy from steam table at TS K).
VH S  Wc p (T1  273.2)  (V  W )c p (T2  273.2)
W kgwater H S  c p (T2  273.2)
 
V kgvapor c p (T2  T1 )
 Baromatic condenser
Cold water
T1 K

Noncondensables

Vapor inlet

Tailpipe

Warm water
T2