Video 1 of 4 of Pre-flashover

Some idealised fire plume models

Enclosure T-t Relationship: if interrupted, the fire may
not develop into the flashover phase. Fire safety design aims to prevent/delay flashover.
However, the eventuality of flashover fire should be considered for structural
resistance. The temperature-time relationship is the key parameter.
Temperature

Growth Steady burning Decay

Flashover

Pre-flashover
Post-flashover fire
fire

Sprinkler

Limited fuel, oxygen Time

What are the issues of fire safety
and how to tackle them?

To control, contain and put out fire so that the

affected people can evacuate to safety.

To minimise loss of property and business.

 Learning objectives
• Knowledge of a few idealised fire plume
models
• Introduction to performance based means of
escape design
• Application to detector design
• Application to smoke control
 Fire Plumes
Fire Plume Models
• Ideal fire plume (small
plume)
• Thomas fire plume (large
plume)
• Effects of fire plume
positions
• Ceiling jets
• Rate of heat release
 Differenti al bouyancy force
1. Ideal plume
dF  g       dzb 2
Mass flow rate
.
m p  b 2 u Time rate of momentum
.
b m  u  b 2 u 2
u
z dz v=u
T
Energy balance
. .
  c  T  b uc p T
2
Flow profile Q m
T   /  .T
.
.  Q
Q  b uc p
2
T  b 
2

 uc pT
Fire Source
 1/ 3
.   g 
2 . 1/ 3
m p  0.20  Q z5/3
cT 
 p 
.
1/ 3
Q  T  . 2/3
T  . T  5.0   Q z 5 / 3
m p cp  gc 2  2 
 p  

Note: Q(dot) is the convective T  293K ,    1.1kg / m 3 ,

rate of heat release (RHR). If the
total RHR is given, the c p  1.0kJ /( kg .K ),
convective RHR is about 60%-
g  9.81m / s 2
80% of the total RHR, the rest
20%-40% being the radiant RHR. 
. . 1/ 3
m p  0.071Q z5/3  kg / s 
 Example 1
A wastepaper basket, standing on the floor, burns with a total RHR
of 100 kW. Calculate the mass flow in the plume at height 2m and
the plume temperature.

Input information: Q(dot) = 0.7*100=70 kW. T=293K, =1.2

kg/m3, cp=1.0 kJ/(kg.K), g=9.81 m/s2.

1/ 3
.  1.2  9.81 
2
m p  0.20  701/ 3 25 / 3  0.95kg / s
 1.0  293 

1/ 3
 293  2 / 3 5 / 3
T  5.0 2 
70 2  73 K  T  93o
C
 9.811.0 1.2 
2
 Steady state/transient state of plume

g,Tg z’ Steady state:

Clear height z does not
mp change with time, e.g. to
maintain a smoke clear
a,Ta H height – use equation
z

Transient state:
Clear height z changes with
Q time, e.g. to calculate
smoke descending from
ceiling – use differential
form of the equation
2. Plume Interaction with Walls
 Wall and Corner Plume
Equations
Small fires :
. . 1/ 3
m p  0.071Q z 5/3

1/ 3 . 1/ 3
. 1   5/3 .
m p , wall  0.071 2 Q  z  0.045 Q z 5/ 3

2  
1/ 3 . 1/ 3
. 1   5/3 .
m p ,corner  0.071 4 Q  z  0.028 Q z 5/3

4  
 3. The Thomas Plume

0.28  L / D  1.44
P=fire perimeter (m)=D
. for circular fire
m p  0.188.P.z 3/ 2
 Example 2
Consider a large ground fire of 3x3m2 in an industrial building. Smoke
venting is used to control smoke so that smoke does not fall below 4m
above ground. Assume rate of heat release =0.5MW/m2. specific heat of
smoke =1 kJ/(kg.K) and density of smoke=1 kg/m3. Estimate the volume
rate of smoke extraction and the average smoke temperature.
.
m p  0.188.P.z 3/ 2

 0.188  12  4 3/ 2
 18.05kg / s
.
v p  18.05(kg / s ) / 1(kg / m )  18.05m / s
3 3

(0.7  3  3  500)kW
Tave.   174.5 C
o

18.05kg / s 1kJ / kg.K  

 4. Ceiling Jet
Far Field

Near Field

Temperature and velocity equations are

given in notes.
 Rate of Heat Release (RHR) –
critical design decision
• Babrouskas, V. Greyson, S. (ed.): Heat
Release in Fires, E & FN Spon, 1992
• SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, MA., 2000
 General design: T-Square Fire
Growth Rate  (kW/s2)
Ultra Fast (e.g. Shopping 0.19
. centres, entertainment
Q  t 2
centres)
Fast (e.g. Schools, 0.047
offices, Hotels, Nursing
homes)
Medium (e.g. Dwellings) 0.012
Slow (e.g Gallery) 0.003
Example of a Design Case
 Key points
• Ideal/Thomas plume: smoke mass rate, average
temperature
• Adaptation of plume equation to different
locations
• Key parameter: Rate of Heat Release (RHR)
• T-squared fire: RHR = function of time squared
• Convective heat
• Key design decision: selection of growth rate