Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 16
The Reproductive
System
The Reproductive System
 Function:
 Gamete production; transport; maintenance; production of sex
hormones
 Meiosis
 Information contained in DNA
 Process of nuclear division
 Body cells contain 46 chromosomes
 Gametes contain 23 chromosomes
 2 phases
 Meiosis I & Meiosis II
 Result is 4 gametes with 23 chromosomes
 Spermatogenesis  4 sperm
 Oogenesis  1 Ovum; 3 polar bodies
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
 Organs produce and maintain sperm; transport
sperm and supporting fluids; secrete male sex
hormones
 Testes (2), primary sex organ
 Exocrine function: produce sperm
 Endocrine function: produce testosterone
 Duct system,
 Epididymis, Ductus deferens, Urethra
 Accessory organs
 Seminal vesicle, Prostate gland, Bulbourethral gland
 External genitalia
 Penis, Scrotum
Testes
 Coverings of the testes
 Tunica albuginea
(white coat) – capsule
that surrounds each
testis
 Septa: extensions of
the capsule.
 Each testis divided into
lobules
Testes
 Each lobule contains one to
four seminiferous tubules
 Function: sperm-forming
factories
 Empty sperm into the rete
testis
 Sperm travels through the
rete testis to the epididymis

 Interstitial cells produce

androgens such as
testosterone
 Cells in soft connective
tissue surrounding the
seminiferous tubules
 Epididymis
 Comma-shaped, tightly
coiled tube
 About 20 feet long
 Found on the superior
portion of the testis and
along the posterior lateral
side
 First portion of the male
duct system
 Functions to mature and
store sperm cells (at
least 20 days)
 Expels sperm to the vas
deferens
Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)
 Location:
 Passes through the inguinal
canal and over the bladder
 Carries sperm by peristalsis
 Spermatic cord – ductus deferens,
blood vessels, and nerves in a
connective tissue sheath
 Passes through the prostrate
gland (forming ejaculatory duct),
and merges with the urethra
 Propels sperm into urethra
 Vasectomy: a cutting of the ductus
deferens within the scrotum
Urethra
 Extends from the base of the urinary
bladder to the tip of the penis
 Carries both urine and sperm
 Sperm enters from the ejaculatory
duct
 Regions of the urethra
 Prostatic urethra –surrounded by
prostate
 Membranous urethra – from
prostatic urethra to penis
 Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the
length of the penis within penis
 Spongy urethra carries both urine
and sperm
 At different times. During
ejaculation the internal urethral
sphincter constricts to prevent
passage of urine into urethra and
Seminal Vesicles
 Located at the base of the bladder
 Produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60%
of semen)
 Fructose (sugar);ENERGY!
 Vitamin C
 Prostaglandins
 Other substances that nourish and activate
sperm
Prostate Gland
 Encircles the urethra below bladder
 Secretes a milky fluid
 Helps to activate sperm; motility
 Enters the urethra through several small ducts
 Located anteriorly to rectum

Bulbourethral Glands
 Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
 Produces a thick, clear mucus
 Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine; pre-ejaculate
 Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
 Secreted into the penile urethra
Semen
 Mixture of sperm and accessory gland
secretions
 Advantages of accessory gland secretions
 Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
 Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
environment of vagina
 Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
 Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
 50-130 million sperm in each ml of semen
 Less that 20million per ml makes fertilization improbable
External Genitalia
 Scrotum
 Divided sac of skin & subcutaneous tissue outside the abdomen
enclosing testes; appears as single pouch, but house 2 testes
 Maintains testes at 3°C (~60 degrees F) lower than normal body
temperature to protect sperm viability  moved by cremaster muscle
 Penis
 Male excitatory organ
 Surrounds urethra
 Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
 Regions of the penis
 Shaft
 Glans penis (enlarged tip)
 Prepuce (foreskin)
 Folded cuff of skin around proximal end (Often removed by
circumcision)
 Erection; emission; ejaculation; orgasm
Spermatogenesis
 Production of sperm cells
 Produced from spermatogonia cells
 Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
 Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
 Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half
Processes of Spermatogenesis
 From birth to puberty:
 Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo mitosis to produce
stem cells before puberty
 During puberty and beyond:
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
 modifies spermatogonia division
 At each division now, two daughter cells are produced.
 We will call them daughter cell A and daughter cell B
 Type A daughter cell remains embedded in
seminiferous tubule to maintain the stem cell
population
 Type B daughter cell produced becomes a primary
spermatocyte
 Travels toward the tubule lumen while undergoing
meiosis
Processes of Spermatogenesis
 Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
 Produces four gametes
(spermatids in males)
 Cells contain ½ the
chromosomes (n)
 Haploid spermatids are
produced
 Spermatids are not yet
functional sperm
 Nonmotile (can’t move)
 Contain excess cytoplasm
Processes of Spermatogenesis
 Spermiogenesis
 last stage of sperm development
 Excesss cytoplasm is sloughed off
 Head, midpiece and tail are formed
 Late spermatids are produced with
distinct regions
 Head – contains DNA covered by the
acrosome
Acrosome: a large lysosome
containing enzymes that are
released when a sperm contacts
the oocyte(egg)
 Midpiece – contain mitochondria
supplying ATP
 Tail – propel sperm forward
 Sperm cells result after maturing of
spermatids
 Spermatogenesis takes 64 to 72 days
 Anatomy of a Mature Sperm Cell
 The only human flagellated cell
 Head
 Contains 23 chromosomes
 Covered in acrosome
 Body
 Contains mitochondria
 Tail
 Flagellum - locomotion
Hypothalamic and Pituitary hormones
 The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH)
 GnRH travels to anterior pituitary gland through blood
stream
 Anterior pituitary gland
 In response to GnRh, 2 gonadotropins are released
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)
 LH promotes secretion of testosterone from interstitial
cells
 FSH stimulates seminiferous tubule cells to respond
to testosterone
 FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis
Androgen (Testosterone) Production
 Testosterone: the most important hormone of the testes
 Testosterone produced continuously from puberty on
within males
 Targets secondary sex organs
 Deepening of voice, Increased hair growth,
Enlargement of skeletal muscles, Thickening of bones

 Functions of testosterone
 Stimulates reproductive organ development
 Underlies sex drive
 Sexual infantilism: the result of no testosterone
production, the secondary sexual characteristics do
not develop
Regulation of Male Androgens (Sex Hormones)
 Negative feedback system
 An increase in blood testosterone
causes an inhibition of the
hypothalamus,
 Stimulation of the anterior
pituitary by GnRH decreases
 Secretion of LH from anterior
pituitary decreases
 Testosterone release
decreases
 Testosterone decrease
 Hypothalamus stimulates
anterior pituitary, LH released,
testosterone released
Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
 Produce female gametes
 Nuture and protect a developing fetus
 Ovaries primary reproductive organs
 Exocrine product: ova
 Endocrine product: estrogens and progesterone
 Duct System
 Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)
 Uterus
 Vagina
 External genitalia
Ovaries
 Composed
of ovarian follicles
(sac-like structures)
 Each follicle consists of an
oocyte, surrounded by follicle
cells
 Follicle enlarges and develops
a fluid filled antrum
 Structure of
an ovarian
follicle
 Oocyte
 Follicular cells
Ovarian Follicle Stages
 Primary follicle – contains an immature
oocyte early stage
 Graafian (vesicular) follicle – growing follicle
with a maturing oocyte later stage. The egg matures
until ovulation
 Ovulation – when the egg is mature the
follicle ruptures the oocyte is released from the ovary
 Occurs about every 28 days
 The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus
luteum
 In older women the ovary surface is scarred and pitted
 Support for Ovaries
 Suspensory ligaments – secure ovary to lateral walls
of the pelvis
 Ovarian ligaments – attach to uterus
 Broad ligament – a fold of the peritoneum, encloses
suspensory ligament
Uterine Tube
 Tubes from ovaries to uterus (Begin duct system)
 4 inches long
 Fimbriae – finger-like extentions at the distal end that receive
the oocyte
 Provide a site for fertilization
 Does not physically attach to the ovary
 Supported by the broad ligament
 Attaches to the uterus
 Cilia inside the uterine tube slowly move the oocyte towards
the uterus
 Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube
 Oocyte is viable for 24 hours, journey takes 3-4 days
 Many potential eggs are lost in the peritoneal cavity
Uterus
 Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
 Hollow, muscular organ
 Functions of the uterus
 Receives a fertilized egg
 Retains the fertilized egg
 Nourishes the fertilized egg
 Enlarges during pregnancy
 Uterus
 Layers
 Endometrium
 Inner layer
 Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
 Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
 Endometriosis = endometrial tissue in locations other
than uterus; tissue bleeds, but does not shed, resulting in
scars or adhesions; painful and possibly infertile
condition
 Myometrium – middle layer of smooth muscle
 Serous layer – outer visceral peritoneum
 Lower 1/3 forms Cervix
Support for the Uterus
 Broad ligament – attached to the pelvis
 Round ligament – anchored interiorly
 Uterosacral ligaments – anchored posteriorly
 Regions of the Uterus
 Body – main portion
 Fundus – area where uterine tube enters
 Cervix – narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina
Vagina
 Thin walled tube 3-4 inches long
 Extends from cervix to exterior of body
 Behind bladder and in front of rectum
 Serves as the birth canal
 Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
 Hymen – partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
 Epithelium and connective tissue
 External Genitalia (Vulva)
 External genitalia: labia, clitoris,
urethral and vaginal orifices and
greater vestibular glands
 Labia – skin folds
 Labia majora, Outer folds with hair
 Labia minora, Inner delicate folds
 Vestibule
 Enclosed by labia majora
 Contains opening of the urethra
and the vestibular glands
 Clitoris
 Excitatory organ
 Contains erectile tissue
 Corresponds to the male penis
 Covered by prepuce
Oogenesis
 Oogonia
 female stem cells found in a developing fetus (diploid)
 Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
 Primary oocytes in the connective tissue of the ovary
are surrounded by a single layer of cells that form
primary follicles
 Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
 At birth, the lifetime supply of ~2million primary oocytes
are waiting in the ovarian follicles for the time to undergo
meiosis and become the functional eggs
 Remain in a state of suspended animation
 At puberty, 1 primary oocyte is stimulated to undergo
Meiosis 1
Oogenesis
The hypothalamus secretes the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
into the blood
GnRH travels to and targets the Anterior Pituitary Gland (APG)
Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
At puberty, 400,000 oocytes remain, but only ~500 are released during a
women’s lifetime.
Maturation of Follicle:
During child bearing years, each month FSH stimulates one primordial follicle
to mature: The following events occur over a 14 day period (approximately).
1. The primary oocyte enlarges and undergoes meiosis
2. The follicular cells multiply and give rise granulosa cells;
3. The follicle is now called a primary follicle.
4. A fluid-filled cavity, called the antrum appears.
 A crown of granulosa cells surround the oocyte
(corona radiata).
 The follicle is now called a secondary follicle.
Oogenesis
• Ovulation:
• Oogenesis (meiosis I) is complete as
the follicle matures (approximately 14
days);
• Upon maturation, Luteinizing hormone
(LH) causes the follicle to burst,
releasing an secondary oocyte
• After ovulation, the oocyte is drawn
into the fallopian tube (via fimbriae).
• Meiosis II is completed only if sperm
penetrates
– A single ovum and 3 polar bodies are
formed
• LH causes the ruptured follicle to
become corpus luteum
 Hormone Production by the Ovaries
 Estrogens
 Produced by maturing follicle cells (of ovary)
 Days 1-14
 Cause secondary sex characteristics
 Enlargement of accessory organs
 Development of breasts
 Appearance of pubic hair
 Increase in fat beneath the skin
 Widening and lightening of the pelvis
 Onset of menses
 Progesterone
 Produced by the corpus luteum
 Days 14-24
 Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
 Prepares the uterus for zygote implantation
• thickens the lining
• promotes formation of glands and blood vessels
Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle
 ~28 days in length
 Cyclic changes of the endometrium mucosa of the uterus
in response to hormone changes
 Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and
progesterone which are regulated by the anterior pituitary
hormones =FSH and LH
 Stages of the menstrual cycle
 Menses – functional layer of the endometrium is
sloughed days 1-5
 Proliferative stage – regeneration of functional layer
days 6-14
 Secretory stage – endometrium increases in size and
readies for implantation days 15-28
 Ovulation typically occurs on day 14
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
• Menstrual phase
•Superficial layer of endometrium
sloughs off
•Day 0, hypothalamus secretes
releasing hormone
• anterior pituitary gland secretes
FSH
•FSH secreted days 1-14
•FSH targets primordial
follicle (follicle matures)
•Mature follicle releases
estrogen
 Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
•Proliferate phase:
•rising estrogen levels causes the
regeneration of the functional layer.
• Day 14
•Anterior pituitary gland secretes LH
•Targets mature secondary follicle
•Follicle bursts causing Ovulation to
occur
•Secretory phase:
•Days 14-24
•The corpus luteum secretes
progesterone
•Progesterone targets endometrium
•Endometrium becomes thick,
glandular and vascular.
•Endometrial glands secrete
nutrients into uterus.
 Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
•Secretory phase: continued
•If no implantation
•By day 24 corpus luteum
degenerates
•Estrogen and progesterone levels
decline
•The decrease in androgens is
detected by hypothalamus
•Hypothalamus secretes
releasing hormone to stimulate
pituitary gland to secrete FSH
•Cycle begins again
•If Implantation occurs
•Corpus luteum to continues
hormone production (progesterone).
Stages of Pregnancy and
Development

 Fertilization
 Embryonic development
 Fetal development
 Childbirth
 Fertilization
 Sperm become capacitated in female reproductive tract
 Secondary oocyte ovulated from ovary
 The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after ovulation
 Sperm are viable for 12 to 48 hours after ejaculation some super
sperm are viable for 72 hours
 So intercourse must take place within 72hours before to 24
hours after ovulation
 Sperm cells must make their way to the fallopian tube
tube for fertilization to be possible
 Chemical messages released by the oocyte attract the sperm
 One sperm enters secondary oocyte
 The membrane of the oocyte does not permit a second sperm
head to enter
 The oocyte then undergoes its second meiotic division
 Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of a sperm
combines with that of an oocyte to form a zygote
The Zygote
 First cell of a new individual
 The result of the fusion of DNA from sperm and egg
 The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions
 The process is called cleavage.
 First division = 36 hours = 2 cells
 Second division = 48 hours = 4 cells
 Morula = solid ball of 32 cells = 96 hours

 The zygote stage is in the uterine tube, moving toward the

uterus propelled by peristalsis and cilia

 Blastocyst = about 5 days

 A hollow ball of cells surrounding central cavity
The Blastocyst aka the chorionic vesicle
 Ball-like circle of cells
 Begins at about the 100 cell stage
 Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) to the corpus luteum to continue
producing hormones otherwise the corpus luteum would
degenerate and without the provided progesterone, the functional
layer would slough off in menses
 Functional areas of the blastocyst
 Trophoblast – large fluid-filled sphere
 Inner cell mass
The Embryo
 Developmental stage from the start of cleavage until the
ninth week
 The embryo first undergoes division without growth
 meaning the daughter cells continue to get smaller and smaller
 The embryo enters the uterus at the 16-cell state
 The embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily
 the functional layer of the endometrial lining is not yet fully
prepared for implatation.
 Uterine secretions are used for nourishment
Hormones of Pregnancy
 Estrogens and progesterones
 From corpus luteum through month 3
 Low levels
 Maintain uterine lining
 Prepare mammary glands
 From placenta month 3 through birth
 High levels
 Maintain pregnancy
 develop mammary glands
 Human chorionic gonadotropin
 From placenta
 Stimulates continued secretion of estrogens and
progesterones by corpus luteum
 Relaxin
 From placenta and ovaries
 Relaxes pubic symphysis and ligaments
 Dilates cervix
Development from Ovulation to
Implantation
Development After Implantation
 Chorionic villi (projections of the blastocyst) develop
 Cooperate with cells of the uterus to form the placenta
 The embryo is surrounded by the amnion (a fluid filled
sac)
 An umbilical cord forms to attach the embryo to the
placenta
 Functions of placenta
 Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is
not exchanged)
 Delivers nutrients and oxygen
 Removes waste from embryonic blood
 Becomes an endocrine organ (produces hormones) and
takes over for the corpus luteum
 Estrogen
 Progesterone
Development After Implantation
Gestation
 266 days from fertilization
 All organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth
week
 Anatomical changes
 Uterus occupies most of pelvic cavity by 3rd month
 Most of abdominal cavity by end of pregnancy
 Abdominal organs pushed up
 Elevates diaphragm
 Widens thoracic cavity
 Ureters and bladder are compressed
Gestation
 Physiological changes
 General
 Weight gain
 Increase in storage of protiens, lipids and minerals
 Breast enlargement (lactation)
 Lower back pain (lordosis
 Cardiovascular
 SV and CO increase 30%
 HR increase 10-15%
 Blood volume increase 30-50%
 Edema due to compression of IVC
 Pulmonary changes
 TV & ERV increase 30-40%
 Functional residual capacity decrease
 Oxygen consumption increases 10-20%
Gestation
 Physiological changes
 GI changes
 Increased appetite
 More nausea, vomiting, heartburn
 Urinary changes
 Increase in frequency, urgency and incontinence
 Increased urine production
 Skin changes
 Increase in pigmentation
Mammary Glands
 Present in both sexes, but only function in
females
 Modified sweat glands (apocrine)
 Function is to produce milk
 Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to
increase in size
 Anatomy of mammary glands
 Areola – central pigmented area
 Nipple – protruding central area of areola
 Lobes – internal structures that radiate around nipple
 Composed of CT and alveoli
 Alveolar glands – clusters of milk producing glands within lobules
 Lactiferous ducts – connect alveolar glands to nipple
 Childbirth (Partition)
 Labor – the series of
events that expel the infant
from the uterus
 Initiation of labor
 Estrogen levels rise
 Uterine contractions begin
 The placenta releases
prostaglandins
 Oxytocin is released by the
pituitary
 Combination of these
hormones produces
contractions
Stages of Labor
 Dilation
 Cervix becomes dilated
 Uterine contractions begin and increase
 The amnion ruptures
 Expulsion
 Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
 Normal delivery is head first
 Placental stage
 Delivery of the placenta
Stages of Labor
Developmental Aspects of the
Reproductive System

 Gender is determined at fertilization

 Males have XY sex chromosomes
 Females have XX sex chromosomes
 Gonads do not begin to form until the
eighth week
Developmental Aspects of the
Reproductive System

 Testes form in the abdominal cavity and

descend to the scrotum one month
before birth
 The determining factor for gonad
differentiation is testosterone
Developmental Aspects of the
Reproductive System
 Reproductive system organs do not
function until puberty
 Puberty usually begins between ages
10 and 15
 The first menses usually occurs about
two years after the start of puberty
 menarche
 Most women reach peak reproductive
ability in their late 20s
Developmental Aspects of the
Reproductive System

 Menopause occurs when ovulation and

menses cease entirely
 Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine
organs
 There is a no equivalent of menopause
in males, but there is a steady decline in
testosterone
Sexually transmitted diseases
 AIDS
 Chlamidia
 Genital Herpes
 Genital Warts
 Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
 Hepatitis B