INTRODUCTION

TO RESEARCH
College of Medical Laboratory Science
(CMLS)
The Research Committee
 What is a Research?

A scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts,

testing ideas, etc.
The systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and
answer a certain question or solve a problem
A careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or problem using scientific
methods
 What is a Research?

The adult form of the science fair projects back in

elementary school, where you try and learn
something by performing an experiment
A scientific context usually refers to the entire
scientific method from start to finish
Careful and detailed study into a specific problem,
concern, or issue using the scientific method
Which do you think counts as “research"?

Reading a book Listening to the news

Surfing the internet Reading a journal article
Watching people in an Going to a museum
airport Watching a YouTube
Conducting an video
interview Consulting a dictionary
 Characteristics of a Research

Demands a clear statement of the problem

Requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in
the hope that you will come across a solution)
Builds on existing data, using both positive and negative
findings
New data should be collected as required and be organized in
such a way that they answer the research question(s)
 Characteristics of a Research

Directed toward the solution of a problem

Based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
Demands accurate observation and description
Involves gathering data from primary sources or existing
data for a new purpose
Characterized by carefully designed procedures /
methods
 Characteristics of a Research

Requires expertise
Is objective and logical
Quest for answers to unsolved problems
Requires courage, patience and unhurried activities
Carefully recorded and reported
 Importance of Research

A tool for building knowledge and for facilitating learning

Means to understand various issues and increase public
awareness
An aid to business success
A way to prove lies and to support truths
Means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities
A seed to love reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing
valuable information
Nourishment and exercise for the mind
 Why is research important in health?

Diagnose diseases and health problems

Prevent the development or recurrence of disease and

reduce the number of people who become ill
Treat illness to improve survival rates or increase the number
of people who are cured

Improve the quality of life for people living with illness

General Types
of Research
On the basis of nature
of information:
 Quantitative Researches

Early forms of research

Originated in the natural sciences such as biology,
chemistry, physics, geology etc.
Concerned with investigating things which we could
observe and measure in some way
 Quantitative Researches

Observations and measurements can be made

objectively and repeated by other researchers
Measurements tell us how often or how many
people behave in a certain way
Concerned with questions about: How much? How
many? How often? To what extent? Etc.
 Qualitative Researches

Attempts to increase our understanding of why things are

the way they are in our social world and why people act the
ways they do
Concerned with developing explanations of social
phenomena
Aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and
why things are the way they are
Concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin
with: Why? How? In what way?
General Types
of Research
On the basis of utility of
content or nature of
subject matter of
research:
 Basic Research

Fundamental or pure
Driven by a curiosity or interest in a scientific
question
Main motivation is to expand man's knowledge,
not to create or invent something
No obvious commercial value to the discoveries
that result from basic research
 Basic Research

Probe for answers to questions such as:

 How did the universe begin?
 What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed
of?
 How do slime molds reproduce?
 What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
 Applied Research

Scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical

problems.
Used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure
illness, and develop innovative technologies, rather
than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
May investigate ways to:
 Improve agricultural crop production
 Treat or cure a specific disease
 Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
 Correlational Research

Systematic investigation or statistical study of

relationships among two or more variables, without
necessarily determining cause and effect
Seeks to establish a
relation/association/correlation between two or
more variables .
E.g., To test the hypothesis “ listening to music
lowers blood pressure levels”
 Correlational Research

2 ways of conducting research:

 Experimental – group samples and make one
group listen to music and then compare the bp
levels
 Survey – ask people how they feel ? How often
they listen? And then compare
 Correlational Research

Advantages:
Can collect much information from many subjects at one
time.
Can study a wide range of variables and their interrelations.
Study variables that are not easily produced in the
laboratory.
Disadvantages:
Correlation does not indicate causation( cause and effect).
Problems with self-report method
 Descriptive Research

Statistical research
Provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of
a particular individual, situation, or group.
Means of discovering new meaning, describing
what exists, determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing information
 Descriptive Research

Deals with everything that can be counted and studied,

which has an impact of the lives of the people it deals with
For example,
 Finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town.
 The reader of the research will know what to do to
prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy
life
 Descriptive Research

Advantages:
The people or individual studied are unaware, so they act
naturally or as they usually do in everyday situation;
It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative
experiments;
Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;
As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it
is to start the research with it.
 Descriptive Research

Disadvantages:
Descriptive research requires more skills.
Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon
Response rate is low in this research.
Results of this research can change over the period of
time.
 Experimental Research

An objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the

purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and
examining probability and causality among selected variables
Advantages
 Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships
Disadvantages
 Artificiality
 Feasibility
 Unethical
 Health Research

Application of principles of research on health

Generation of new knowledge using scientific
method to identify and deal with health problems
Basis on which new tools, strategies, and approaches
are devised that are applicable to health problems
facing many countries
 Health Research - Three Groups

Essential health research activities to define the

health problems of a given country or community, to
measure their importance and to assure the quality of
activities to deal with them
Health service research but there will be elements of
clinical research and development of technology
 Health Research - Three Groups

Clinical research topics ranges from studies of

the prevention and diagnosis of diseases through
new methods of treatment to problems of care and
rehabilitation
Wherever clinical facilities exist, there is a potential
for clinical research.
 Health Research - Three Groups

Biomedical research most basic part of health

research which demands more resources, facilities
and skilled investigators
More often of universal importance and thus of
general significance
General Types
of Research
On the basis of
approach of research:
 Longitudinal Research  a type of correlational
research that involves looking at variables over an
extended period of time.
Can take place over a period of weeks, months, or even years
Examples of this category are historical, Case study and Genetic
research.
Cross-Sectional Research a study in which
subjects of different ages are compared at the same
time.
Often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many
other areas including social science, education and other branches
of science
Examples of this category are experimental and survey research.
General Types
of Research
Research method we may
classify a research into
five different categories:
 Philosophical Research purely qualitative in
nature and we are focusing on the vision of others on
the content of research.

Historical Research both qualitative as well as

quantitative in nature and deals with past events.

Experimental Research purely quantitative in

nature and deals with future events.
Survey Research deals with present events and is
quantitative in nature.
May further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational
and exploratory type of research

Case-Study Research deals with unusual events.

may be qualitative as well as quantitative in nature
depending upon the content
 Priority
Research Under
Philippine
Research
Agenda
 Research Main
Components and
Process
 Research Problem

Is stated vividly and explicitly expressed in

interrogative form or question.
Can identify a research problem by reading recent
research, theory and debates on your topic to find a
gap in what is currently known about it.
E.g., The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on
cardiovascular health are not well understood.
Start from broad issue and narrow it down to a
specific problem.
 Research Objectives

A statement of purpose for which the investigation

is to be conducted.
Define the focus of your study
Clearly identify variables to be measured
Indicate the various steps to be involved
Establish the limits of the study
Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly necessary.
 Research Objectives

General objective of your study states what you

expect to achieve in general terms.
Specific objectives break down the general
objective into smaller, logically connected parts
that systematically address the various aspects of
the problem
Should specify exactly what you will do in each phase of
your study, how, where, when and for what purpose.
 Research Objectives

Should be stated using action verbs that are

specific enough to be measured
E.g., to compare, to calculate, to assess, to determine, to
verify, to calculate, to describe, to explain, etc.
Avoid the use of vague non-active verbs such as:
To appreciate, to understand, to believe, to study, etc.,
Because it is difficult to evaluate whether they have been
achieved
 Research Objectives

E.g., General objective: To identify factors that

affects the acceptability of VCT services and to assess
community attitudes towards comprehensive care and
support for people living with HIV/AIDS.
Specific objectives:
1.To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of the
community towards HIV/AIDS and VCT services.
2.To identify barriers and concerns related to VCT and its
uptake.
 Hypothesis/es

Defined as a wise guess that is formulated and

temporarily adopted to explain the observed facts
covered by the study ( educated guess)
Cannot be proven correct from the data obtained in
the experiment, instead are either supported by the
data collected or refuted by the data collected
E.g., Someone performing experiments on plant growth might
report this hypothesis: "If I give a plant an unlimited amount of
sunlight, then the plant will grow to its largest possible size."
 Hypothesis Types

Null hypothesis (H0)(“H-nought,” "H-null," or "H-

zero“)  is a denial of an existence of a trait,
characteristics, quality, value, correlation or
difference of the result.
Suggests that no statistical relationship and
significance exists in a set of given single observed
variable, between two sets of observed data and
measured phenomena
 Hypothesis Types

Alternative hypothesis (H1) is an affirmation of

the existence of observed phenomena.
H0 is the commonly accepted fact; it is the opposite of the
alternate hypothesis.
 Theoretical Framework

Shapes the justification of the

research problem/objectives.
Introduces and describes the theory
that explains why the research problem
under study exists.
 Conceptual Framework
Presents specific and well defined concepts which
are called construct. Illustrate what you expect to find
through your research, including how the variables
you are considering might relate to each other.
 Assumptions

Are presumed to be true statements of facts related to

the research problem.
Things that are accepted as true, or at least plausible, by
researchers and peers who will read your dissertation or
thesis.
E.g., In the claim an umbrella provides the best defense in wet
weather  the argument is that the umbrella is the best choice, in
the opinion of the writer.
Assumption in the thesis in your own words the thesis assumes
everyone would want to stay dry in wet weather.
 Review of Related Literature

A detailed review of existing literature related to the

topic of a thesis or dissertation
Talk about knowledge and findings from existing
literature relevant to your topic.
Find gaps or conflicts in existing literature, you can
also discuss these in your review, and if applicable,
how you plan to address these gaps or resolve these
conflicts through your study.
 Research Design

Refers to the overall strategy that you choose to

integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, - ensuring you will
effectively address the research problem
Constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.
Research problem determines the type of design you
should use, not the other way around!
 Research Design

Framework of research methods and techniques chosen

by a researcher
Explains the type of research (experimental, survey,
correlational, semi-experimental, review)
Also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case-study)
Proper research design sets your study up for success.
Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate
and unbiased.
 Data Collection

Procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing

accurate insights for research using standard
validated techniques.
Primary and most important step for research,
irrespective of the field of research.
Approach of data collection is different for different
fields of study, depending on the required
information
 Data Collection

Most critical objective of data collection is ensuring

that information-rich and reliable data is collected
for statistical analysis so that data-driven decisions
can be made for research.
Data Processes and Statistical Application

Gain familiarity with, and understanding of the data, to

determine the approach to take, and methods to use in
further statistical analyzes
Converts data into information and knowledge, and
explores the relationship between variables
Process of systematically applying statistical and/or
logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and
recap, and evaluate data
 Analysis and Interpretation

Process of assigning meaning to the collected

information and determining the conclusions,
significance and implications of the findings
Involves interpreting data to answer research
questions and making research findings be ready
for dissemination.
 Analysis and Interpretation

Interpretation involves attaching meaning and

significance to the analysis, explaining
descriptive patterns, and looking for relationships
and linkages among descriptive dimensions.
Once these processes have been completed the
researcher must report his or her interpretations
and conclusions
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusions section  sums up the key points of

your discussion, the essential features of your
design, or the significant outcomes of your
investigation.
A blend of all the facts you have written in your main body
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Recommendations  address limitations and

suggest how they might be overcome in future work
- added suggestions that you want people to follow
when performing future studies.
Based of of what you have found or what you might be
interested in doing at some point in the future.
The Research Paper (CMLS/RDIC Format)

Chapter 1 Background of the Problem

Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis
Research Locale
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation
The Research Paper (CMLS/RDIC Format)
Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature
Related Literature
Related Studies
Justification of the Study
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
Research Design
Materials and Procedures
Materials
Procedures
Data Collection and Analysis
The Research Paper (CMLS/RDIC Format)

Chapter 4 Results and Discussions

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Appendices
The Research Paper (CMLS/RDIC Format)
Format:
Book Old man Style, 11 font size
Margins: 1.5’ left, 1’ top, 1’ bottom, 1’ right
Spacing:
From top: 3 spaces
From title: double space
From header: double space
Within paragraph: double space
From last line of paragraph to next sub-header: 3 spaces
 Ethical
Consideration in
Doing Research
 Ethical Considerations  specified as one of the
most important parts of the research.
According to Bryman and Bell (2007) the following
represent the most important principles related to
ethical considerations
Research participants should not be subjected to
harm in any ways whatsoever.
Respect for the dignity of research participants
should be prioritized.
Full consent should be obtained from the
participants prior to the study.
 The protection of the privacy of research
participants has to be ensured.
Adequate level of confidentiality of the research
data should be ensured.
Anonymity of individuals participating in the
research has to be ensured.
Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and
objectives of the research must be avoided.
Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as
well as any possible conflicts of interests have to be
declared.
 Any type of communication in relation to the
research should be done with honesty and
transparency.
Any type of misleading information, as well as
representation of primary data findings in a biased
way must be avoided.
The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other
unacceptable language needs to be avoided in the
formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group
questions.
Maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in
discussions and analyses throughout the research
 Acknowledgement of works of other authors used
in any part of the dissertation with the use of
Harvard/APA/Vancouver referencing system
according to the Dissertation Handbook
Adherence to Data Protection Act
Ethical Issues in Summary
Honesty
Validity
Informed consent
Voluntary Participation
Sampling
Confidentiality or Anonymity
Risk of Harm
Research Methods (Only assess relevant components.)
 Biosafety In Handling Microorganism
To prevent from directly or indirectly
contributing to the malicious misuse of
biological agents and toxins, including the
development or production of biological weapons.
There are different codes of conduct.
Aspirational (codes of ethics)
Educational/Advisory (codes of conduct)
Enforceable (codes of practice)
However, the key aim of a code is prevention.
 Biosafety In Handling Microorganism

Who is responsible for infection or outbreaks?

Ethical guidelines  very important in sample collection,
transportation and laboratory procedures as little contamination can
give false results
Personnel of laboratories working in clinical and /or research are
bound by the ethical codes of their respective profession.
Must comply with the ethical code of conduct prescribed by
international and national statutory bodies and address the ethical,
social and legal aspects in biomedical science.
 Biosafety In Handling Microorganism

All the laboratory tasks must be carried out with the

high level of expertise and proficiency expected of
the scientific, medical and allied health fields.
Code of Conduct on biosecurity is concise, simple,
and clear and addresses all laboratories holding
dangerous organisms.
Laboratory biosafety manual -WHO
 Ethics in Animal Experimentation

The guiding principle is usually the 3 Rs.

1. Animal experiments must be replaced wherever possible by
other methods such as mathematical modeling, or an in vitro
biological system.
2. There must be a reduction in the number of animals used / Only
the number required to obtain reliable data must be used in an
experiment / A thorough literature search must be done
beforehand to prevent duplicating experiments.
3. The study must be refined to minimize its overall impact on the
animals used.
 Ethics in Animal Experimentation

Determine the appropriate sample sizes and procedures

to be used in the experiment.
The animals should have access to veterinary care.
All personnel who work with the animals should be
sufficiently trained in both the experimental procedure
and ethical handling of the animals.
Clear rationale for why a hypothesis needs to be tested
using animals
 Ethics in Animal Experimentation

Pain or discomfort should be minimized. Anesthesia

should be used as required and repeated surgical
procedures on the same animal should be avoided
wherever possible.
The humane treatment of the test animals should be
incorporated into the study protocols and aseptic
techniques should be used whenever possible.
 Ethics In Human Experimentation

Most salient ethical values implicated by the use of human

participants in research are:
Beneficence (doing good),
Non‐maleficence (preventing or mitigating harm),
Fidelity and trust within the fiduciary investigator/participant
relationship,
Personal dignity, and autonomy pertaining to both informed,
voluntary, competent decision making and the privacy of personal
information.
 Ethics In Human Experimentation
Basic elements of an informed consent document:
A statement that the study involves research
A description of risks or discomforts
A description of benefits to the subject or others
A disclosure of alternatives
A statement concerning confidentiality of records
Description of compensation, if any, and availability of medical
treatment in the case of injury
Contacts for questions concerning the research, research related
injury, or research subjects' rights
A statement that participation is voluntary
THANK YOU!