Introduction to organic

chemistry
Naming organic compounds
Representing organic molecules
Functional groups
Isomerism
Classification of reactions
Reaction mechanisms
 Naming organic compounds

● A class called alkanes forms the basics of naming organic compounds.

Number of carbon Molecular formula of Name of Stem used in

atoms (n) hydrocarbon (CnH(2n+2)) alkane naming

1 CH4 methane meth-

2 C2H6 ethane eth-
3 C3H8 propane prop-
4 C4H10 butane but-
5 C5H12 pentane pent-
Naming organic compounds

Number of carbon Molecular formula of Name of Stem used in

atoms (n) hydrocarbon (CnH(2n+2)) alkane naming

6 C6H14 hexane hex-

7 C7H16 heptane hept-
8 C8H18 octane oct-
9 C9H20 nonane non-
10 C10H22 decane dec-
 Naming organic compounds:
3-methylhexane

● This organic compound has 6 carbon atoms in its main chain making its stem ‘hex-’.
● There is a side chain in the fourth carbon atom (counting from right).
● The numbering starts from the end which makes the numbering in the name smallest.
● The side-chain is named with a suffix of -yl. The side chain in this molecule is methyl because
it has only one carbon atom.
● This organic compound is named as 3-methylhexane.
 Naming organic compounds:
2,2,5-trimethylhexane

● The main chain of this organic compound has 6 carbon atoms making its stem ‘hex-’.
● There are 3 side chains (two in the second carbon and one in the fifth carbon atom).
● The number of side chains are included in the name using the prefixes ‘di-’(for two), ‘tri-’ (for
three) and ‘tetra-’ (for four).
● This organic compound is named as 2,2,5-trimethylhexane
 Naming organic compounds:
2,5-dimethylheptane

● Consider the organic compound in the figure below,

● The longest carbon chain is considered as the main chain. Therefore, this compound is
named as 2,5-dimethylheptane.
 Naming organic compounds:
3-ethyl-2-methylhexane

● This organic compound has two different alkyl group.

● The alkyl groups are named in alphabetical order.
● This organic compound is named as 3-ethyl-2-methylhexane.
 Representing organic molecules

● General formula
Algebraic formula for a homologous series is called as general formula. For example: the
general formula for alkenes is CnH2n.

● Structural formula

Structural formula tells us about the atoms bonded to each carbon atom in a molecule. For
example: The structural formula for butene is CH3HC=CHCH3.
 Representing
organic molecules ● Displayed formula

Displayed formula tells us about all the

bonds within a molecule. For ex: the organic
molecule in the figure represents butene.

Displayed formula of butene

 Representing
organic molecules ● Skeletal formula

Skeletal formula is a simplified version of

displayed formula where all the carbon-
hydrogen bonds and the symbols of carbon
and hydrogen are removed. The structural
formula for butene is given in figure.
Skeletal formula of Atoms other than carbon and hydrogen are
butene
also shown. For example: The structural and
skeletal formula of butan-2-ol is shown in
figure.

Structural and skeletal formula of butan-2-ol

 Functional groups

● In a class of compounds, where all the compounds consist of molecules of particular atoms
or group of atoms, are called functional groups.

● The compounds of a particular functional group exhibit common chemical properties.

Functional groups

Name of Structural
Functional
Structure General formula an formula of
group
example the example
Alkanes CnH(2n+2) ethane CH3CH3

Alkenes CnH2n ethene H2C=CH2

haloalkanes CnH2n+1X chlorometh CH3Cl

ane
Functional groups
Name of Structural
Functional
Structure General formula an formula of
group
example the example
Alcohols CnH(2n+1)OH methanol CH3OH

Aldehydes CnH(2n+1)CHO ethanal CH3CHO

Ketones CnH(2n+1)COCmH(2m+1) propanone CH3COCH3

Functional groups

Name of Structural
Functional
Structure General formula an formula of
group
example the example
carboxylic CnH(2n+1)COOH ethanoic CH3COOH
acids acid

esters CnH(2n+1)COOCmH(2m+1) ethyl CH3COOC2H5

ethanoate
Functional groups

Structural
Functional Name of an
Structure General formula formula of the
group example
example
arenes CnH(2n-6) benzene C6H6

Amines CnH(2n+1)NH2 methylamine CH3NH2

nitriles CnH(2n+1)CN ethanenitrile CH3CN

 Functional groups
● Homologous series:

A series of organic compounds within the same functional group but with each successive
member differing by -CH2. For example: methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc are part of
alkane homologous series.

● Aliphatic:

A compound containing carbon and hydrogen atoms joined together in straight lines,
branched chains or non-aromatic rings. For example: alkanes, alkenes, etc

● Alicyclic:

A compound arranged in non-aromatic rings with or without side chains. An alicyclic

compound is both aliphatic and cyclic. For example: cyclohexene (as shown in figure).
 Functional groups

● Aromatic:

A compound containing a benzene ring. For example: toluene consists of CH3 attached to
benzene ring as shown in the figure.

● Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons:

Saturated hydrocarbons consist of single carbon- carbon bonds. Whereas, unsaturated

hydrocarbons consist of aromatic rings, double and triple carbon-carbon bonds.
Isomerism ● Compounds with same molecular formula
but different structural formula are called as
structural isomers.

● There are three types of structural isomers:

a) Position isomerism
In positional isomerism, the position of the
functional group varies in each isomer. For
example, consider the compound with
molecular formula C4H8Cl2

Position isomers of C4H8Cl2

Isomerism
b) Functional group isomerism:
In functional group isomerism, different
functional groups are present for the same
molecular formula. For example: a molecular
formula of C3H6O represents propanal and
propanone.

Example of functional group isomers

Isomerism c) Chain isomerism:
Chain isomers differ in the structure of their
carbon ‘skeleton’. For example: butane and
2-methyl propane have the same molecular
formula C4H10 but have different carbon
skeletons as shown in figure.

Example of functional group isomers

 Classification of reactions

● Oxidation reactions

Addition of oxygen to a molecule is also called as oxidation reaction. Alkenes shaken with a dilute
solution of acidified potassium magnate at room temperature is oxidised. Alkene is converted to
diol. In this reaction, pale purple solution turns colourless.
 Classification of reactions

● Reduction reactions

Removal of oxygen from a molecule is called as reduction. Carbonyl compounds undergo

reduction to form alcohols. Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III)(LiAlH4) with dry ether
(ethoxyethane) is used as reagent for this reaction.
 Classification of reactions

● Substitution reactions

 A solution of potassium cyanide with ethanol is heated with halogenoalkane and the halogen is
substituted by cyanide ion. Bromoethane is converted to propanenitrile. It can be noted that the
length of carbon chain has increased.

CH3CH2Br + CN- →CH3CH2CN + Br-

 Classification of reactions

● Addition reaction
Addition reaction is formation of a single molecule from two reactant molecules. In additional
reactions of alkenes, one of the two bonds in the C=C bond is broken and new single bonds is
formed with each of the carbon atom.
Classification of ● Polymerisation reactions
 Unsaturated molecules react with each other
reactions under specific conditions to form polymer
molecules.
 The small units that react together to make
the polymer is called as monomer.
 For example: up to 10,000 molecules of
ethene reacts to form the polymer
polyethene.

Additional polymerisation
 Reaction mechanisms

● The overall reaction is summarised using a series of steps called as reaction mechanism.

● There are two ways in which covalent bonds can break:

a) Homolytic fission

b) Heterolytic fission
Reaction mechanisms:
Homolytic fission ● In this type of bond breaking, each electron
in the shared pair leaves with an atom that
formed the covalent bond.
● The homolytic fission of hydrogen chloride
is shown in figure.
● The products of this reaction are called as
free radicals.
● Free radicals have an unpaired electron and
are highly reactive.
● This reaction is expressed in the form of
equation as,
HCl → H∙ + Cl∙
where H∙ and Cl∙ are free radicals.

Homolytic fission of hydrogen chloride

Reaction mechanisms:
Heterolytic fission
Heterolytic fission
● In this type of bond breaking, the most
electronegative atom takes the electrons in
the covalent bond.
● The heterolytic fission of hydrogen chloride
is shown in figure.
● The curly arrow in the equation shows the
movement of electron pair.
● Heterolytic fission of a carbon and an
electronegative element X is also shown.
The carbon atom gets a slight positive
charge as the electronegative element X
pulls the shared pair of electrons.
● The positively charged molecular ion with
carbon is an electrophile. An electrophile is
an acceptor of pair of electrons.