UNIT OPERATIONS I

Ms. M. T. Rapoo,
Teaching Instructor; Block 109/002
Department of Chemical, Materials & Metallurgical Engineering
 WHAT IS A UNIT OPERATION?

It is a basic step in a process involving a physical

change

Classes of Unit Operations

• Fluid flow processes – filtration and solids fluidization,
settling & sedimentation, mixing and agitation.
• Heat transfer processes – evaporation, and heat exchange
• Mass transfer processes – gas absorption, distillation, extraction,
adsorption, drying
• Thermodynamic processes – gas liquefaction, refrigeration
• Mechanical processes – solids transportation, crushing,
pulverisation, screening, sieving, froth flotation
 FLUIDIZATION
A granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic
fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up
through the granular material.
 FLUIDIZATION
• The basic components required for a fluidized bed are a container, a
gas distributor, solid powder, and gas.
• Introduce a fluid at the bottom, upward at low linear velocities,
there is no movement.
• As the flow increases, frictional drag (FD) on the particles = their
weight (FG) less buoyancy (FB) (force exerted by a fluid that
opposes an object’s weight).
• As particles become rearranged and offer less resistance to flow, the
bed begins to expand.
• Expansion continues as the fluid linear velocity is increased,
reaching the loosest form of packing
• Further increase in velocity, results in the separation of individual
particles
 FLUIDIZATION
The granular material is converted from a static packed bed to a dynamic
fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up
through the granular material at a particular velocity.
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques
• Applied where intimate contact is required between solid
particles and a gas stream (fluid phase).
• Developed mainly for the chemical and petroleum
industries for processes where high heat transfer
coefficients and degree of temperature uniformity is
required.
• E.g.:
– Drying of finely divided solids is carried out in a fluidized
system.
– Applied also in pyrolysis and gasification processes
– Removal of suspended dusts and mists from gases
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques
• Application in mineral processing and metallurgical
engineering in the recovery of metals from ores.
– A good example is the gas phase extraction of metals, giving
high yields of recovery. A volatile organic reagent (eg.
acetylacetate) passes through the feed material and reacts
selectively with material to be extracted. The product is a
volatile metal complex which is removed from the residue gas by
carrier gas through absorption.
• One of the most important properties of a fluidized bed is
its good heat transfer characteristics and its ability to
handle particles with a wide size distribution.
 Applications of Fluidized Bed Techniques

Type Example Reason for using

fluidized bed
Homogenous catalytic Ethylene hydrogenation Rapid heating of
gas-phase reactions entering gas, Uniform
controllable temperature.

Heterogeneous non- Sulphide ore roasting, Ease of solids handling,

catalytic reactions combustion Temperature uniformity,
Good heat transfer.

Heterogeneous catalytic Hydrocarbon cracking, Ease of solids handling,

reactions Phthalic Anhydride, Temperature uniformity,
Acrylonitrile Good heat transfer.
 Fluidization Types
Particulate fluidization
• When fluid velocity is increased
the bed continues to expand and
maintains its uniform character.
• Average bed density at a given
velocity is the same in all
sections of the bed, characterized
by complete homogeneity.
• With gases particulate
fluidization only happens at low
velocities.
 Fluidization Types
Aggregate fluidization

• Is observed at higher gas velocities

• It is characterized by a clear two-
phase structure.
• At high velocities two separate
phases may form.
- Dense or Emulsion –
continuous phase
- Lean or Bubble – is the
discontinuous phase
 Froude number
The Froude number distinguishes the two types of fluidization.
2
umf
gd
Where
2
umf minimum fluidization velocity
d – diameter of particles
g – acceleration due to gravity
Froude Number<1 – Particulate fluidization
Froude Number >1 – Aggregate Fluidization
 Effect of fluidized bed on pressure gradient
If the pressure gradient (−∆P/l) is plotted against the superficial velocity (uc) using
logarithmic co-ordinates, a straight line of unit slope is obtained.
• As the superficial velocity
approaches umf the bed starts
to expand, at higher
velocities it becomes
fluidized.
• At higher velocities, voidage
is higher, pressure gradient
decreases because weight of
particles per unit bed is
smaller
• With even higher velocities
transport of the solid
particles occur and pressure
gradient increases.
 Effect of fluidized bed on pressure drop
When pressure drop across the whole bed is plotted against velocity using
logarithmic coordinates.
• A linear relationship
occurs up to point A where
expansion of the bed
starts.
• The pressure drop reaches
a maximum at point B.
• It then decreases to point
C
• Beyond point C, the
pressure drop is
independent of the
superficial velocity
 Pressure drop
• When the gas velocity is high enough that the frictional drag force on
the particles equals the weight of the particles (m×g) the bed becomes
fluidized;
• -∆P is equal the bed weight per unit cross-sectional area.
• Thus, in a bed of unit cross-sectional area, length l, and porosity e, the
pressure drop across the bed caused by the layout weight of particles
is given by:
  (1)
Where
l – is length of bed
e – porosity of the bed (fluid volume fraction of the bed)
 p - density of solid
 - density of fluid

g – acceleration due to gravity

 Pressure drop
• Equation
  (1) applies from the expansion of the bed until
transport/flight of solids occur.
• In a streamline flow in a fixed bed of spherical particles,
the following relation between fluid velocity uc and
pressure drop applies (Carman-Kozeny equation)

• For a fluidized bed, the weight of particles is

counterbalanced by frictional drag, substitute (1) into (2)
 
𝑒3 2 (
𝜌𝑠− 𝜌) 𝑔
𝑢𝑐 = 0.0055 𝑑 (3)
(1 − 𝑒) 𝜇
 Pressure drop
Increasing superficial velocity will lead to the point of
 

incipient fluidization, where particles are just supported in

the fluid, eqn. (4) applies with voidage at umf being emf

The value of emf depends on shape, size distribution and

surface properties of particles.
A typical value is
emf  0.4
Then eqn. 4 becomes
0.00059d 2   s    g
umf ( e   5
mf  0.4 )

 Minimum fluidizing velocity
• Equations (4) and (5) apply only at streamline flow and
they are therefore restricted to very fine particles only.
• For large particles, where streamline flow cannot be
achieved at incipient fluidization, the Ergun equation is
applied, equation (6).

  (1)
 Minimum fluidizing velocity
Substituting for e=emf and uc=umf at incipient fluidization
and -∆P from equation (1)
(1  emf )(  s   ) g  150
(1  emf ) 2 umf
 1.75
1  e  u
mf
2
mf
 7
3 2 3
emf d 3 emf d
d
Multiplying eqn. (7) by  2 (1  emf ) yields
2
 (  p   ) gd 3
(1  emf ) 2
 umf d  1.75  umf d 
 150    3    8
 2
emf
3
   emf   

 (  p   ) gd 3
 Ga Ga is the Galileo number
 2

umf d Remf is the Reynolds number at the

 Re mf
 minimum fluidizing velocity
 Minimum fluidizing velocity
Equation (8) can be written as
b a
c
150(1  emf ) 1.75 2
Ga  3
Re mf  3 Re mf  9
emf emf

Equation 9 is a quadratic equation!!!

For a typical value of emf = 0.4, eqn. (9) becomes

Ga  1406 Re mf  27.3 Re 2 mf 10

Solving Remf Re mf  25.7[ (1  5.53 10 5 Ga)  1] (11)

 Minimum fluidizing velocity
Similarly, for emf = 0.45

Re mf  23.6[ (1  9.39 105 Ga)  1] (12)

umf d
Therefore by definition, if   Remf , then the minimum
fluidization velocity is obtained from:


umf  Re mf (13)
d
 Example 1
A bed consists of uniform spherical particles of diameter
3mm and density 4200kg/m3, what will be the minimum
fluidizing velocity in a liquid of viscosity 3 x10-3 Pasm-2 and
density of 1100kg/m3, Assume emf = 0.4
 (  p   ) gd 3
Ga 
2
(3x10 3 ) 31100(4200  1100)9.81
Ga 
(3x103 ) 2

= 1.0035
5
x 10
 Example 1

Assuming emf = 0.4 from equation (11)

Re mf  25.7[ (1  5.53 10 5 )(1.0035 105 )  1]  8115.78

 8115 .78(3 x10 3 )

Re mf  umf   7.377m / s
d 3
3x10 1100
 Minimum fluidizing velocity
In the case of non-spherical particles, to use the above equations,
we account for non sphericity as follows, from eqn. (8)

 (  p   ) gd 3  1  emf  1  d p umf  1.75  umf d p  

2 2 2

 150     3   14
 2  e 3   2   e 
 mf 
  2 
Where  mf  
- mean linear dimension of the particles
dp
- particle shape factor

When either and / or are unknown, the following
approximationsemfby Wen and Yu (1966) can be used

1 1  emf
e 3
 and  11 (15)
mf
14  e2 3
mf
 Shape factors
The void fraction e is defined as

volume of voids in bed

e (16)
total volume of bed  voids  solids 

The specific area of the particle a is given by

v

Sp Where
av  (17) S p surface area of the particle
Vp volume of the particle
Vp
 Shape factor

The sphericity shape factor ϕ of a particle is the ratio of the surface area
of the sphere having the same volume as the particle to the actual
surface area of the particle.

S p  D p2
The surface area of a sphere,

D 3p
Vp 
And the volume; 6
 Shape factors
For any particle the shape factor  is given by
D p 2

Where 
Sp
Sp actual surface of the particle
Dp is the equivalent diameter of the sphere having the same
volume as the particle.
Therefore the specific area av of an irregular particle is:
  D p 2  
 
Sp    6
av      ( 20)
  D p    D p
3
Vp
   
  6  
   
 Shape factor
Therefore for irregular shapes
Sp 6
av   (20)
Vp  Dp

For a sphere ϕ = 1

For a Cylinder where diameter = length, ϕ= 0.874

For a cube ϕ = 0.806

 Bed height & Porosity Relationship
The porosity of a packed bed is given by
 p  b
e
Where p
p density of the solid particle
b bulk density of the bed
The relationship between the height of packed bed and
fluidised bed is then L p 1 ef

Lf 1 ep
Height of bed at minimum fluidising conditions
Lp 1  e mf

Lmf 1 ep
 Heat Transfer
Fluidised beds have extremely good heat transfer properties

Nu is a dimensionless parameter used in calculations of heat transfer

between a moving fluid and a solid body.

'
Where N u
for the particle = hd Pr for the particle =
 
K

Re 'c for the particle = u c d p


uc - the superficial velocity
 Heat Transfer
Equation (29) is valued for
1
10  Re c  10
' 3
(Reynolds Number)
22  Pr  14000 (Prantl Number)
0.4  e  0.9 (porosity Number)

For gas – solid systems

0.25
 1  e  
0.65 0.17 0.80
hd t  dt   dt   uc d t  
 0.55        (30)
k  l  d  epc p    
 Example 2
Spherical catalyst pellets 3mm in diameter are to be fluidized with
nitrogen at 101.3kPa at 600C. The density of the catalyst particles are
980 kg/m3. The molecular weight of nitrogen is 29kg/kmol. If it is
assumed that the point of incipient fluidization is reached
at emf = 0.43, Calculate the minimum fluidization velocity in
the vessel. Nitrogen is considered here to be an ideal gas with µ=
0.0000207 Ns/m2.
Ergun Equation

R (gas constant) = 8.314 m3∙Pa/(mol.K), g =9.81m/s2

 Example 2 Solution
The pressure drop across the bed caused by the layout weight of
particles is given by
  (1)
 
Combining equation (1) and the Ergun equation

(1  emf )(  s   ) g  150
(1  emf ) 2 umf
 1.75
1  e  u
mf
2
mf
 7
3 2 3
emf d emf d

This equation can be simplified to

1.75
  𝑑 𝜌𝑢 2𝑚𝑓 +150 ( 1− 𝑒 𝑚𝑓 ) 𝜇 𝑢 𝑚𝑓 − ( 𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌 ) 𝑔 𝑑 2 𝑒3𝑚𝑓 =0
 Example 2 Solution
ρnitrogen is unknown

PM r 101300 x 29
a  
RT 8.314 273  60  x1000mol / kmol
 1.061092365kg / m 3

1.75
  𝑑 𝜌𝑢 2𝑚𝑓 +150 ( 1− 𝑒 𝑚𝑓 ) 𝜇 𝑢 𝑚𝑓 − ( 𝜌 𝑝 − 𝜌 ) 𝑔 𝑑 2 𝑒3𝑚𝑓 =0

1.75 0.0031.061092365  umf2

 1501  0.43 0.0000207  u mf
  980  1.061092365  9.81 0.43  0.003  0
3 2

0.00557073492u mf2  1.76985 x10 3 u mf  6.87183105 x10 3  0

u mf  0 Ignore negative root

 Example 3
Non spherical catalyst pellets, 4mm in diameter, shape factor of
1.1, are to be fluidized with air at 101.3kPa at 700C. The density of
the catalyst particles are 1100 kg/m3. Take the molecular weight of
air as 26.9 kg/kmol. If it is assumed that the point of incipient
fluidization is reached at  mf  0.43 , calculate the minimum
fluidizing velocity in the vessel. Air is considered here to be an
ideal gas with  air  0.0000207 Ns/m2.
 Example 3 Solution
At minimum fluidization velocity
1501  emf  umf 1.751  emf  umf
2 2

1  e  
mf s  g   (7)
 d e
2 2 3
mf e d
3
mf

 shape factor = 1.1

emf  0.43

PM r 101.3x103 Pa  26.3g / mol

   933.83 g / m 3
 0.9338kg / m 3

RT 8.314m3  Pa / K  mol  343.15K

 Example 3 Solution
Substitute values into equation (7)

1  0.431100  0.9338 9.81 

2

1501  0.43 2.07 x10 5 umf  
1.1  0.004
2 2
 0.43 
3

1.751  0.43 0.9338 umf

 0.43 3 1.1 0.004

 6145.6  655.39u mf  2662.61u 2

mf 0

655.39   655.39 2  4  6145.6 2662.61

u mf   1.401m / s
2 x 2662.61
Thank you for your attention!