Group Theory

Normality of Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Right Cosets
Let (G, ·) be a group
with subgroup H. For a,
b ∈ G, we say that a is
congruent to b modulo
H, and write a ≡ b mod
H if and only if ab−1 ∈ H.

2
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Proposition
The relation a ≡ b mod H
is an equivalence
relation on G.
The equivalence class
containing a can be
written in the form Ha =
{ha|h ∈ H}, and it is
called a right coset of H
in G. The element a is
called a representative
of the coset Ha. 3
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Theorem
Let  be a
homomorphism
function from group
(G, *) to group (G‘,.).
Then, (Ker,*) is a
normal subgroup of
(G,*).
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Proof
i) Ker is a subgroup of G
a,bKer, (a)=eG‘,
(b)=eG‘.
Then, (a*b)=(a)
(b)=eG‘.
Therefore, a*bKer.
Inverse element:
aKer, (a)=eG‘.
Then,
(a-1)=(a)-1 =eG‘
Therefore, a-1Ker.
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

ii) gG,aKer, (a)=eG‘.

Then,
(g-1*a*g)
= (g-1) (a)  (g)
=  (g)-1 eG‘  (g)
= eG‘
Therefore,
g-1*a*gKer.
Group Theory

Example of Normal
Group
Example of Normal Group

Definition
A subgroup H of a group
is a normal subgroup if
gH=Hg for gG.
 Example of Normal Group

Example
 Any subgroups of Abelian group are normal
subgroups
 S3={(1),(1,2,3), (1,3,2), (2,3), (1,3), (1,2)}.
 H1={(1), (2,3)}; H2={(1), (1,3)}; H3={(1), (1,2)};
 (1,3)H1={(1,3),(1,2)} H1(1,3)={(1,3),(1,2)}
 (1,2,3)H1={(1,2,3),(1,2)} H1(1,2,3)={(1,2,3),(1,3)}
Example of Normal Group

 H4={(1), (1,2,3), (1,3,2)}

are subgroups of S3.
 H4 is a normal subgroup.
Example of Normal Group

(1)Hg=gH, it does not

imply hg=gh.
(2) If Hg=gH, then there
exists h'H such that
hg=gh' for hH.
 Example of Normal Group

 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. When is

(a H) (b H) = a b H?
 This is true for abelian groups, but not always when G is
nonabelian.
 Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, μ1}. The left cosets are
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3}, {ρ2, μ2}.
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3} = {ρ0 ρ1, ρ0 μ3, μ 1 ρ1, μ 1 μ3}
= {ρ1, μ3, μ2, ρ 2}
This has four distinct elements, not two!
Group Theory

Factor Group
Factor Group

Definition
Let (H,*) be a normal
subgroup of the group
(G,*). (G/H,) is called
quotient group, where the
operation  is defined on
G/H by
Hg1Hg2= H(g1*g2).
If G is a finite group, then
G/H is also a finite group,
and |G/H|=|G|/|H|.
 Factor Group

• The product of two sets is define as follow

SS’ = {xx’xS and x’S}
• {aHaG, H is normal} is a group, denote by G/H
and called it factor groups of G.
• A mapping f: GG/H is a homomorphism, and call
it canonical homomorphism.
 Factor Group
f
aH aH

H
H

G G/H
 Factor Group

Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}. The left cosets are

{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {μ1, μ2, μ3} = {ρ0 μ1, ρ0 μ2, ρ0 μ3, ρ1 μ1, ρ1 μ2, ρ1 μ3, ρ2 μ1, ρ2
μ2, ρ2 μ3} = {μ1, μ2, μ3, μ3, μ1, μ2, μ2, μ3, μ1} = {μ1, μ2, μ3}
This is one of the cosets. Likewise,
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3}{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3 }{μ1, μ2 , μ3} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
Note that the cosets of {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} with this binary operation
form a group isomorphic to ℤ2.
Factor Group

Note that there is a

natural map from S3 to
{{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}}
that takes any element to
the coset that contains it.
This gives a
homomorphism called
the cannonical
homomorphism.
Group Theory

Coset Multiplication
and Normality
Coset Multiplication and Normality

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a
group G.
Then H is normal if and
only if
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G
Coset Multiplication and Normality

Proof
Suppose
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G.
We show that aH = H a,
for all a in H.
We do this by showing:
a H  H a and Ha aH,
for all a in G.
 Coset Multiplication and Normality

a H  H a: First observe that aHa-1 (aH)(a-1H)

=(aa-1)H = H.
Let x be in a H. Then x = a h, for some h in H. Then
x a-1 = a h a-1, which is in = a H a-1 ,
thus in H. Thus x a-1 is in H. Thus x is in H a.
H a  a H: H a  H a H = (e H )( a H) = (e a) H = a H.
This establishes normality.
 Coset Multiplication and Normality

For the converse, assume H is normal.

(a H )( b H)  (a b) H: For a, b in G, x in (a H )( b H)
implies that x = a h1 b h2, for some h1 and h2 in H.
But h1 b is in H b, thus in b H. Thus h1 b = b h3 for
some h3 in H. Thus x = a b h3 h2 is in a b H.
(a b) H  (a H )( b H): x in (a b) H ⇒ x = a e b h, for
some h in H.
Thus x is in (a H) (b H).