Group Theory

Orbits
Orbits

Definition
An orbit of a permutation
p is an equivalence class
under the relation:
a ~ b ⇔ b = pn(a),
for some n in ℤ.
 Orbits

Find all orbits of    1 2 3 4 5 

 2 3 1 5 4
 
Method:
Let S be the set that the permutation works on.
0) Start with an empty list
1) If possible, pick an element of the S not already
visited and apply permutation repeatedly to get
an orbit.
2) Repeat step 1 until all elements of S have been
visited.
 Orbits

 Look at what happens to elements as a

permutation is applied.

 
1 2 3 4 5
  
 2 3 1 5 4
α(1)=2, α2(1)=3, α3(1)=1 {1,2,3}

α(4)=5, α2(4)=4 {4,5}

Group Theory

Orbits
Orbits

Theorem
Let p be a permutation
of a set S.
The following relation
is an equivalence
relation:
a ~ b ⇔ b =pn(a),
for some n in ℤ.
Orbits

Proof
1) reflexive:
a = p0(a) ⇒ a~a
2) symmetric:
a~b ⇒ b = pn(a), for

some n in ℤ
⇒ a = p-n(b),
with -n in ℤ
⇒ b~a
 Orbits

•   transitive:
3)
a~b and b~c
⇒ b = (a) and c = (b) , for some n1 and n2 in
ℤ
⇒ c = ((a)) , for some n1 and n2 in ℤ
⇒ c = (a) , with n2 + n1 in ℤ
⇒ a~c
Group Theory

Cycles
Cycles

Definition
A permutation is a
cycle if at most one of
its orbits is nontrivial
(has more than one
element).
Cycles

Definition
A cycle of length 2 is
called a transposition.
Cycles

Example

1 2 3 4 5
   
 2 3 1 5 4

=(1, 2, 3)(4, 5)
=(1,3)(1,2)(4,5)
 Cycles

Composition in cycle notation

 = (1 2 3)(1 2)(3 4)
= (1 3 4)(2)
= (1 3 4)
 = (1 2)(3 4)(1 2 3)
= (1)(2 4 3)
= (2 4 3)
Group Theory

Disjoint Cycles
Disjoint Cycles

Definition
Two permutations are
disjoint if the sets of
elements moved by
the permutations are
disjoint.
 Disjoint Cycles

Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4
1 2 3 4
0     (1 2)(1 2)
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1     (1 2 3 4)  (1 4)(1 3)(1 2)
2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4
2     (1 3)(2 4)
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
3     (1 4 3 2)  (1 2)(1 3)(1 4)
4 1 2 3
 Disjoint Cycles

Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4
1 2 3 4
1     (1 2)(3 4)
 2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4
2     (1 4)(2 3)
4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
1     (2 4)
1 4 3 2
1 2 3 4
2     (1 3)
3 2 1 4
Group Theory

Cycle Decomposition
Cycle Decomposition

Theorem:
Every permutation of
a finite set is a product
of disjoint cycles.
Cycle Decomposition

Proof:
Let σ be a permutation.
Let B1, B2, …, Br be the
orbits.
Let μi be the cycle
defined by μi (x) = σ(x) if
x in Bi and x otherwise.
Then σ = μ1 μ2 … μr .
Note: Disjoint cycles
commute.
Cycle Decomposition

Lemma
Every cycle is a product
of transpositions.
Proof
Let (a1, a2, …, an) be a
cycle, then
(a1, an) (a1, an-1) … (a1, a2)
= (a1, a2, …, an).
Cycle Decomposition

Theorem
Every permutation can
be written as a product
of transpositions.
Proof
Use the lemma plus the
previous theorem.
Group Theory

Parity of Permutation
Parity of a Permutation

Definition
The parity of a permutation
is said to be even if it can
be expressed as the
product of an even number
of transpositions, and odd
if it can be expressed as a
product of an odd number
of transpositions.
Parity of a Permutation

Theorem
The parity of a
permutation is even or
odd, but not both.
 Parity of a Permutation

Proof
We show that for any positive integer n, parity is a
homomorphism from Sn to the group ℤ2, where 0
represents even, and 1 represents odd.
These are alternate names for the equivalence classes
2ℤ and 2ℤ+1 that make up the group ℤ2.
There are several ways to define the parity map.
They tend to use the group {1, -1} with multiplicative
notation instead of {0, 1} with additive notation.
 Parity of a Permutation

One way uses linear algebra: For the permutation π

define a map from Rn to Rn by switching coordinates
as follows
Lπ(x1, x2, …, xn) = (x π(1), xπ(2), …, xπ(n)).
Then Lπ is represented by a n x n matrix Mπ whose
rows are the corresponding permutation of the rows
of the n x n identity matrix.
The map that takes the permutation π to Det (Mπ) is
a homomorphism from Sn to the multiplicative group
{-1, 1}.
 Parity of a Permutation

Another way uses the action of the permutation on

the polynomial
P(x1, x2, …, xn ) = Product{(xi - xj )| i < j }.
Each permutation changes the sign of P or leaves it
alone.
This determines the parity: change sign = odd parity,
leave sign = even parity.
Group Theory

Alternating Group
Alternating Group

Definition
The alternating group
on n letters consists of
the even permutations
in the symmetric group
of n letters.
Alternating Group

Definition
The alternating group
on n letters consists of
the even permutations
in the symmetric group
of n letters.
Alternating Group

Theorem
If n≥2, then the
collection of all even
permutations of
{1, 2, …, n}
forms a subgroup of
order n!/2 of the
symmetric group Sn.
 Alternating Group

1 2 3
0     (12)(12)
1 2 3
1 2 3
1     (1 2 3)  (1 3)(1 2)
2 3 1
1 2 3
2     (1 3 2)  (1 2)(1 3)
3 1 2
1 2 3
1     (2 3)
1 3 2
1 2 3
2     (1 3)
3 2 1
1 2 3
3     (1 2)
2 1 3
 Alternating Group

A3={(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}

(1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)

(1) (1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)

(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1)

(1 3 2) (1 3 2) (1) (1 2 3)