STRAIN

Normal (axial) strain

 The normal strain ε (lowercase Greek epsilon)
is defined as the elongation per unit length.
Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the
axial direction, also known as the axial strain,
is

  𝜹
𝜺=
𝒍
 
where δ is the deformation and is the
original length, thus ε is dimensionless.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-
compression testing machine. As
the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the
total elongation over the gage
length is measured at each increment of the load and this
is continued until failure of
the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-
sectional area and length of the
specimen, the normal stress σ and the strain ε can be
obtained. The graph of these
quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the
strain ε along the x-axis is called
the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram
differs in form for various
materials. The diagram shown below is that for a
medium carbon structural steel.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (HOOKE'S LAW)

   seen in Fig. the stress-strain diagram is a straight

As
line from the origin O to a point called the
proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of
Hooke’s law: Stress is
proportional to strain; that is,

  𝝈 =𝑬 𝜺
where E is a material property known as the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus. The units of E are the
same as the units of stress—that is, Pa or psi. For
steel, psi, or 200 GPa, approximately.
Elastic Limit
 A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded,
the material returns to its original shape when the
load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its name
implies, the stress beyond which the material is no
longer
elastic. The permanent deformation that remains
after the removal of the load is called the permanent
set. The elastic limit is slightly larger than the
proportional limit. However, because of the
difficulty in determining the elastic limit accurately,
it is usually assumed to coincide with the
proportional limit.
Yield Point
 The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes
almost horizontal is called the yield point, and the
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or
yield strength. A slight increase in stress above the
elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material
and cause it to deform permanently.
Ultimate Stress
 The ultimate stress or ultimate strength,
as it is often called, is the highest stress on
the stress-strain curve.

Rupture Stress
 The rupture stress or rupture strength is
the strength of the material at rupture or at
which failure occurs. This is also known as
the breaking strength.
Modulus Of Resilience

  
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit
volume of material as the force is gradually increased
from O to P, in . This may be calculated as the area
under
the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the
elastic limit E. The resilience of the material is its
ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent
distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
  
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume
of material as the force is gradually increased from O to R,
in . This may be calculated as the area under the entire
stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a
material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to
break.
Axial Deformation
  In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the stress is proportional to strain and is given by

since and , then . Solving for

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the stress
must not exceed the proportional limit. If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial
deformation can be determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.
Axial Deformation
   however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by
If
considering a differential length and applying integration.

where A = ty and y and t, if variable, must be expressed in terms of x.

Poisson’s Ratio
  
When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it elongate but it also
contracts laterally. For example, if a rubber band is stretched, it can be noted that both the thickness and
width of the band are decreased. Likewise, a compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in
the direction of the force and yet its sides expand laterally.
 Consider a bar having an original radius r and length L and subjected to the tensile force P in Fig. This
force elongates the bar by an amount , and its radius contracts by an amount ’. Strains in the
longitudinal or axial direction and in the lateral or radial direction are, respectively,
and
Poisson’s Ratio
   the early 1800s, the French scientist S. D. Poisson realized that within the elastic range the ratio of
In
these strains is a constant, since the deformations and are proportional. This constant is referred to as
v
Poisson’s ratio, 󠇯 (nu), and it has a numerical value that is unique for a particular material that is both
homogeneous and isotropic. Stated mathematically it is
=

 The negative sign is included here since longitudinal elongation (positive strain) causes lateral
contraction (negative strain), and vice versa.
Example 1
  A bar having a length of 5 in. and cross-sectional area of 0.7 is subjected to an axial force of 8000 lb.
1.
 
If the bar stretches 0.002 in., determine the modulus of elasticity of the material. The material has linear-
elastic behavior.

Sol.
Solving for Normal Stress & Strain:

Solving for Modulus of Elasticity:

answer
Example 2
  A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 and a length of 150 m is suspended vertically from
2.
 
one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 and E =
200 × 103 , find the total elongation of the rod.

Sol.
Let = total elongation
= elongation due to its own weight
= elongation due to applied load

Where: P = W = 7850(1/1000)3(9.81)[300(150)(1000)]
P = 3465.3825 N
L = 75(1000) = 75,000 mm
A = 300
E = 200,000 MPa
Example 2
  

Where: P = 20 kN = 20,000 N
L = 150 m = 150,000 mm
A = 300
E = 200,000 Mpa

Total elongation:

answer
Example 3
3. The
  rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD. Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and
has a cross-sectional area of 500 ; link CD is made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
600 . For the 30-kN force shown, determine the deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, (c) of E.
Example 3
Sol. 
+

Deflection of B (since the internal force in link AB is compressive, we have

The negative sign indicates a contraction of member AB,

and, thus, an upward deflection of end B:

answer
Example 3
Sol. 
Deflection of D (since in rod CD, )

answer

Deflection of E (we denote by B’ and D’ the displaced

Positions of points B and D. Since the bar BDE is rigid,
Points B’, D’ and E’ lie in straight line)

answer
Example 4
4. A  500-mm-long, 16-mm-diameter rod made of a homogenous, isotropic material is observed to increase in
length by , and to decrease in diameter by when subjected to an axial 12-kN load. Determine the modulus of
elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
Example 4
Sol. 
The cross-sectional area of the rod is

Choosing the x axis along the axis of the rod

Solving for the Modulus of Elasticity:

answer
Example 4
Solving
  for the Poisson’s ratio:

=
answer
END OF TOPIC.

Assignment
1. The
  acrylic plastic rod is 200 mm long and 15 mm in diameter. If an axial load of 300 N is applied to it,
determine the change in its length and the change in its diameter. ,

2. The elastic portion of the stress–strain diagram for a steel alloy is shown in the figure. The specimen from
which it was obtained had an original diameter of 13 mm and a gauge length of 50 mm. When the applied
load on the specimen is 50 kN, the diameter is 12.99265 mm. Determine Poisson’s ratio for the material.
Assignment
3. The
  aluminum block has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to an axial compressive force of 8
kip. If the 1.5-in. side changed its length to 1.500132 in., determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length of
the 2-in. side. ksi

  A bar having a length of 5 in. and cross-sectional area of 0.7 is subjected to an axial force of 8000 lb. If
4.
the bar stretches 0.002 in., determine the modulus of elasticity of the material. The material has linear-elastic
behavior.
Assignment
5. The stress–strain diagram for a polyester resin is given in the figure. If the rigid beam is supported by a
strut AB and post CD made from this material, determine the largest load P that can be applied to the beam
before it ruptures. The diameter of the strut is 12 mm and the diameter of the post is 40 mm.
Assignment
  An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 carries the axial loads applied
6.
at the positions shown in Figure. Compute the total change in length of the bar if . Assume the bar is suitably
braced to prevent lateral buckling.

  A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in Figure. Axial loads are
7.
applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0
mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum.
Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use , , and .
Assignment
8. The rigid bar ABC shown in Figure is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B.
Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is
limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
Assignment
9. The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in Figure is horizontal before the load P is
applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.
Assignment
10. The rigid bars ABC and CD are supported by pins at A and D and by a steel rod at B. There is a roller
connection between the bars at C. Compute the vertical displacement of point C caused by the 50-kN load.