RADIOGRAPHIC

TESTING.
PRESENTATION : –

KRISHNAMOORTHI. V
 BASIC PRINCIPLE.

• DIFFERENCIAL ABSORPTION OF
PENETRATING RADIATION.
 PURPOSE.

• By applying hard rays or high penentrating

rays to pass inside the material we can
detect the surface & sub-surface
discontinuities.
 ADVANTAGES.

• Permanent record.
• Both surface & sub-surface defect can be
inspected.
• Both metal & non metal can be inspected.
• Location of defect can be found.
• Depth of defect can be find by parallax
method.
 DIS-ADVANTAGES.
• Radiation hazard.
• Permission required from government for
using RT.
• Special safety equipment required for
working in RT.
• Initial cost & maintenance cost is high.
• Except parallax method depth cannot be
find.
 ATOMIC PHYSICS.
 MATTER :

 Anything which occupies space is

called a matter.
 STATES OF MATTER.

A. SOLID : Molecules are closely packed.

B. LIQUID : Molecules are loosely packed.

C. GASES : Molecules are very loosely

packed.
 MOLECULES.

 It is a divisible particle which shows the

characteristics of a parent metal.

 Likes molecules forms an element.

 ATOMS.

 It is a invisible particle.

 Group of atoms forms a molecules.

 It has subatomic particles like proton

neutron & electron.
 PROTONS.

 It has positive charge.

 Mass number is high.

 NEUTRON.

 It has neutral charge.

 Mass number is grater than proton.

 ELECTRON.

• It has negative charge

• Mass number is less than proton.

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
 Proton & neutrons are present inside the central
path of atom called as nucleus.
 Electrons revolve around & outside the nucleus
in a fixed orbit or path.
 Inside the atom proton & neutron occupies 1 %
of space remaining 99% are or of free space.

 IT CONSTITUTE TWO STAGES :

A. STABLE STATE.
B. UNSTABLE STATE.
 A. STABLE STATE.

 If proton & electron numbers are equal the

atom is said to be in stable state.

 In stable state the atom is Electrically

Neutral.
 B. UN-STABLE STATE.

• If proton & electron numbers are not equal

the atom is said to be in unstable state.
• In unstable state the atom emits ions.
• Ions means any charged particles.
• In unstable state the atom process either
positive charge or negative charge.
 IONIZATION.
• Biological damage.
• Ionization means producing ions.
• The removal of electron from material is
called as positive charge.
• The adding of electron to the film is called
as negative charge.
• Each radiation has the ionization property.
 MASS NUMBER.

• The proton and neutron number in an

atom is called as mass number.

• It denotes the physical property.

 ATOMIC NUMBER.

• The proton number only in an atom is

called as atomic number.

• It denotes the chemical property.

 ISOTOPES.

• Atoms of same elements having different

mass number but same atomic number
are called as isotopes.

• There are 1600 isotopes.

 ISOBARS.

 Atoms of same elements having different

atomic number but same mass number
are called a isobars.
 TYPES OF RADIATION.
• RADIATION : -
 Radiation may be defined as emission of
energy from a source. Source of energy may
be from the sun and all are radiation.
1. Radio and television signals.
2. Visible light.
3. Infrared rays
4. Ultra violet rays.
 Radiation
1. Radio & television signals are very low energy
and human body cannot sense their presence.
2. Infra red rays can be sensed by our body as
radiation heat.
3. Visible light rays can be sensed by our eyes.
4. Ultra violet rays cannot be sensed but this
radiation can produce biological changes i.e.
causes damage to skin, retina and loss of
eyes.
 NUCLEAR OR IONIZING
RADIATION.
• Radiation emitted by the nucleus of
radio active atoms is termed as nuclear
or ionizing radiation.
• The three types of radiations emitted by
a radioactive atom are : -
I. ALPHA ( α )
II. BETA ( ß )
III. GAMMA ( Ύ )
 ALPHA PARTICLE.
 Alpha particle consist of 2 proton and 2 neutrons. As the nucleus
which gives out alpha particle losses to two neutrons and two
protons, the mass number decreases by four and the atomic
number decreases by two.
 Alpha has a charge of 3.202 × 10 .
 Alpha particles produce ionization in air
 They affect a photographic plate and produce scintillation's on zinc
saphead or other florescent screens.
 Alpha particle have a definite range in air depending upon the
source from which they emitted
 Alpha particle carry a positive charge
 They can be deflected by means of electric and magnetic filed .
 They will deflect to left hand side.
 Alpha particle have a heaviest mass.
 BETA PARTICLE.
• Beta particles are fast moving electrons
• After emission of beta particle the atomic number increases by one,
but the mass number does not change.
• Beta particle, emitted by nucleus, have velocities, which cover a
wide range, and are about 10 times that of alpha particle.
• Beta particles produce ionization in air, their ionization power is less
than alpha particle because they are having very small mass.
• Penetrating power of beta particle is more than alpha particle
through matter.
• Beta particle have a range in materials of the order 20 times of alpha
particle, but the range depends on the velocity.
• Beta particles carry a negative charge.
• They can be deflected by means of electric and magnetic field and
they deflect to the right side.
• They effect photographic plates and produce fluorescence on certain
chemical compounds.
 GAMMA PARTICLE.
• Electro magnetic radiation of proton energy (proton
originating from nucleus are gamma rays.)
• They travel with the speed of light.
• They produce ionization in gases, but they have low
ionization power as compared with the ionizing power of
beta particles.
• They have high penetrating power, high than alpha &
beta.
• They blacken photographic plates. They produce
fluorescence in certain crystals.
• They produce heating effect when absorb in matter.
• They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
• They do not process any charge.
 GAMA RAYS PRODUCTION
PROCESS.

1. NEUTRON BOMBARMENT PROCESS:-

2. NUCEAR FUSION :-

3. BOMBARMENT WITH CHARGED

PARTICLE :-
 CHARACTERICS OF RADIATION

• Radiation of any type may be defined by

its two chrematistics.
1. ENERGY : -
2. INTENSITY. : -
Energy will not change but intensity will
change.
1. ENERGY OF RADIATIONS.
 All radiation have energy.
 Energies of varies radiations (alpha, beta &
gamma) are usually specified in electron
volts.
 If particulate radiation, energy is kinetic
energy of motion (½ mv²).
 If gamma radiation, energy is radiant energy
Or photon energy.
 ELECTRON VOLT.
 It is the amount of energy gained by an electron
by passing through a potential difference of 1
Volt.
1 electron volt (ev). 1.6 × 10¹².
1 kilo electron (kev). =1,000ev.
1 million electron volt (Mev). = 1,000,000
ev.
( One electron volt is the energy given to a single
electron as it moves across a potential defense
of one volt.)
 TABLE.
RADIO ENERGY PENENTRATI-
-ISOTOPS LEVEL ON IN STEEL.

0.2 meV - 0.6

Ir 192. meV. 3”
1.17 meV. & 2” - 9”
Co 60. 1.33 meV.
4”.
Ce 137. 0.66 meV.
 ACTIVITY.
 It is measured in curie (CI) or unit of activity was
curie (ci).
 specific activity : how many number of rays will
come or released from a particle source. i.e.
Activity / gm or curie / gm.

 Curie : - the quantity of a radioactive nuclide

which is disintegrating at the rate of 3.7 × 10¹º
atoms per second or disintegration per second is
known as curie.
 INTENSITY.
• Unit of intensity is Roentgen.
• Intensity is measured by in roentgen.

 ROENTGEN : -
The energy required to ionize 1
cm³ (cubic cm) of air or energy required to
ionize 2803 million pairs of air.
 ACTIVATION.
 The process by which neutrons bombard
stable atoms to make them radioactive.

 ATTENUATION : -
The reduction of radiation quantity
upon passage of radiation through matter,
resulting from all types of interaction with
this matter.
 HALF LIFE.

• Half life of radiation source is the period in

which its activity reduces to half of its initial
activity.
 IRIDIUM.

 Stable state Ir 191 & Ir 193 ( mass no. : proton +

electron ).

 Unstable state Ir 192.

 Half life 74.3 days.

 Radiation out puts 0.5 RHM / CI.

 COBALT.

 Stable state CO 59.

 Unstable state CO 60.
 Half life 5.3 year’s.
 Radiation out put 1.3 RHM / CI.
 Radio active decay.
 CESIUM.

• Stable state Ce 136.

• Unstable state Ce 137.
• Half life 37 year’s.
• Radiation out put 0.3 RHM / CI.
• Radio active decay.
 X – RAYS.

 x –rays are invisible electromagnetic

radiation of very short wavelength, which
will travel in straight lines.

 Prof. W.C. Roentgen invited x – rays on

Friday the Nov. 8 th in the year of 1895 in
Germany.
 PRINCIPLE.
 Clauusious II principle, which states that
whenever accelerated charged particles
are de-accelerated X- rays are produced.

Accelerated = Fast moving.

Charged = Electrons.
De-accelerated = Suddenly stopped.
 PROPERTIES OF X - RAYS.
 X – rays are invisible ( cannot see through eyes) electro
magnetic radiation of very shorter wavelength.
 X – ray always travel in straight lines and equal to the
speed of the light i.e. 3 × 108 m/sec.
 X – rays cannot be deflected by means of lens or prism
although their path can be bent by a crystalline grid.
 X – ray are ionizing radiations that is to say they liberate
electrons in matter.
 Wavelength of x – rays is 10 – 12 or 0.001 nanometer.
 X – rays can impair and destroy living cells.
 X – ray produce burning sensation on the skin when fall.
BASIC NEEDS OF PRODUCTION
OF X – RAYS.

A. ELECTRON : -

B. ACCELERATING MEDIA : -

C. TARGET : -
CLASSIFICATION OF X – RAYS : -
1. CHARACTERISTIC (OR) MONOCHROMATIC
X - RAYS : All X- rays have same wavelength ( 1
st orbit electrons)

2. CONTINUIOUS X – RAYS : - X – rays produced

are having different wavelength. Energy
distribution depends on potential difference
across the x – ray tube.

 INTENSITY : Quality of radiation.

 QUALITY : kind of radiation or penetrating.
 SHADOW FORMATION.

 The shadow formed by light & image

created by radiation.

the image formed on film should represent

the minimum true image of the material.
TO RECEIVE A GOOD IMAGE.

 Source should be placed at maximum distance.

 Film should be placed at minimum distance.
 Source, film & material each should lie parallel.
 Source centre radiation should perpendicular to
the film.
 Source size should be minimum size as
-possible.
 FORMULA

Mg = F × T / SOD.

 Mg = Geometrical unsharpness.
 F = Focus spot (3 - 4) mm.
 T = Material thickness.
 SOD = Source to object distance.
 SFD = Source to film distance.
 OFD = Object to film distance.
 OT = Object thickness.
RECOMMENDED µg VALUES AS
PER ASME SEC. V.
MARERIAL THICK. UNSHARPNESS.

Up TO 2” ( 0-50.8 mm) 0.02” (0.508mm)

2” to 3” (50.8 – 76.2 0.03” (0.762 mm)

mm)
3” to 4” (76.2 – 101.6 0.04” (1.016mm)
mm)
Above 4” (101.6 mm) 0.07” (1.778mm)
 EXAMPLES.
1. Calculate the SOD for 50 mm. thickness steel
plate.

Mg = F × T / SOD.
Mg = 0.02”
0.02 = 3 × 50 / SOD

0.02” = 150 / Sod ( 0.02” × 25.4 = 0.508 mm.)

= 3 × 50 / 0.508 = 295.27mm.
 Ex.2. : - Calculate the SOD for 78
mm thickness plate.
• Mg = F × T / SOD.
F=3, T = 78. 1” inch = 25.4 mm
:. 78/25.4 = 3 inch
:. 3” = 0.04” ( unsharpness)
:. Mg = 0.04” × 25.4 mm
:. Mg = 1.016 mm.
Mg = 3× 78 / SOD
0.762 = 3× 78 / 1.016 = 230.3 mm.
SOD = 230.3 mm.
 Example 3.
• Calculate the SOD for 150 mm thickness steel plate.
Mg = f × t / sod.
Given data. : -
f=3
t = 150 mg = 3 × 150 / sod
1” = 25.4 mm
:. 150 / 25.4 = 5.90”
:. 5.90” = 0.07”( unsharpness)
:. Mg = 0.07” = 1.778.
1.778 = 3 × 150 / sod
Sod = 450 / 1.778 = 253.09 mm.
Ans. : - SOD = 253.09 mm.
 Half value layer thickness & tenth
value thickness.
 The thickness of the material, usually called
absorber.
 Example : - steel, Deflated uranium etc.
 Needed to reduced to intensity of radiation to
half its initial value is known as the “Half value
layer thickness.”
 EXAMPLE :
 One HVT of any material reduces the
intensity to half of the original intensity.
 Two HVT reduces the intensity to ½ to ½
= (½)² i.e. ¼ th of the original intensity.
 HVT & TVT values for X- rays and
γ – Radiations.
 Material (values are
all in centimeters )
Radioisoto Concrete Steel Lead Uranium
pe HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
Iridium 1.4 4.6 1.25 4.0 0.48 1.60 0.31 1.0
-192

Cobalt – 6.6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.20 4.00 0.70 2.2

60.
 X- RAYS.
X-rays Concrete Steel Lead
HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
100 Kv 1.6 5.5 0.12 0.38 0.025 0.084

150 Kv 2.2 7.0 0.23 0.76 0.029 0.096

200Kv 2.6 8.0 0.38 1.27 0.042 0.14

250 Kv 2.8 9.0 0.54 1.77 0.086 0.29

300 Kv 3.0 10.0 0.65 2.15 0.17 0.57

TVT ( Tenth value layer thickness)

 tenth value thickness is the thickness.

 i.e. the thickness of the material, usually
called absorber, of any material needed to
reduce the radiation intensity to one tenth
of its initial value.
1 TVT = 3.3 HVT.
 EXAMPLE : -

1. Two TVT reduces the intensity to 1/10 ×

1/10 = (1/10)²
1/10 of the original. Generally 3.3 TVT
reduces the intensity by a factor of 10,
hence 1 TVT = 3.3 HVT (thickness at
which intensity will be decreased to its
one-tenth value of original intensity is
TVT ).
 EXAMPLE.
2. The radiation level at a place due to any
iridium- 192 concrete i.e. 10mR/h. what is
the thickness of steel required to reduce
the level to 2.5 mR/h.
Solution : -
1HVT = 10/2 = 5.0 mR / h
2 nd HVT = 5/2 = 2.5 mR/h
Two HVT of steel for iridium – 192
= 2 × 1.25 cm = 2.5 cm.
 EXAMPLE : -
3. What is the thickness of lead required to
reduce the radiation intensity at a place due to
cobalt – 60 source from 1000 mR/h. to 5 mR/h.
solution :
1TVT = 1000/10 = 100 mR/h.
2nd TVT = 100/10 = 10 mR/h
1HVT = 10/2 = 5mR/h
2 TVT’S + 1TVT = 2(4)+(12) = 9.2 cm.
 EXAMPLE.
4. The radiation intensity at a place from a 300 Kev- X- ray
beam is 3500 mR/h. this has to be reduced to 0.875
mR/h. how much thickness of steel is required to achieve
this.
solution :
3 TVT’S reduces 3500 / 10 = 35 / 10 =3.5mR/h
2 HVT is added to this reduction = 3.5 / 2 = 1.75 / 2
= 0.875 mR/ h.
3 TVT’S + 2 TVT’S of concrete for 300 Kv- X- rays
=3
(0.65 ) + 2 (2.15)
= 1.95 + 4.30 = 6.25 mm.
 FILM.
 STRUCTURE OF FILM : -

The structure of a film consist of four

layers and cross-sectional view of a typical film

1. PROTECTIVE LAYER (1 µ ) micron size.

2. EMULSION LAYER ( 10-15 µ size )
3. BASE LAYER ( 175 µ size )
4. BINDING LAYER or SUBATRATUM LAYER.
 PROTECTIVE COVER .

 Protects film from out side damages .

 The protective layer consists hardened

gelatin is coated on the sensitive emulsion
layers for protection from damages
( abrasion, static & stress mark).
 BASE.

 Polyester is most commonly used.

 polyester bases with the advantages of

being tough and having very low water
absorption.
 TYPES OF FILM

1. FAST FILM : -

2. MEDIUM FILM : -

3. SLOW FILM : -
 1. FAST FILM.

 Exposure time low.

 coerce gain structure film.

 sensitivity & resolution low.

 film factor low.

 MEDIUM FILM.

 Exposure time is medium.

 fine structure film.

 sensitivity is medium.
 SLOW FILM.

 Exposure time high.

 Fine grain structure film.

 sensitivity & resolution high.

 Film factor high.

 DEVLOPING FILM.

 DEVLOPING : -
To convert the latent image
in to visible image film is taken under
developing process.
 LATENT IMAGE.

 IMAGE FORMED IN THE FILM BY

RADIATION.

 UNCLEARED FILM.
 VISIBLE IMAGE.

 IMAGE PRESENT ON THE FILM AFTER

DEVLOPING PROCESS.

 IMAGE CAN BE SEEN CLEARLY.

 DEVLOPING PROCESS.
1. DEVLOPING SOLUTION : -

2. STOP BATH :-

3. FIXATION :-

4. WATER WASH :-

5. DRYING :-
 DEVLOPING SOLUTION
 Creation of the visible image by using
developer.

 it is a mixture of water + Alkaline +

Hydroquinone.
 it acts as both remover and reducer.

 REMOVER : -
It remove protective layer from
the film.
 REDUCER.

 It reduced the exposed Bromide - ions .

 time given should be 4 – 8 mins.

 Temperature – 18 - 22ºc.

 Increase time may reduces bromide ions.

 STOP BATH.
 Remove of excess developer solution &
stopping of developing action.

 It is a mixture of water + Acetic Acid.

 It removes developing solution from the

film & stop the developing solution
process.
 FIXATION.
 Removal of unwanted unexposed silver halide &
making image permanent.
 It is a mixture of water + ammonium thisulphare
or water + sodium thisulphate.
 It is fixes the ions on the film & forms a black
metallic silver colour over the film
 Time given should be double the time of
developing solution.
 Temperature 18 – 22ºc.
 Increase time may be fixes the Br – ions .
 WATER WASH.
 Removal of unwanted fixation products.

 The film should be washed under running water.

 The film is taken for washing process to remove

chemical from the film side walls.

 Water can be used two times for washing.

 DRYING.
 Removal of unwanted or excess water.
 the film should be dried for removing
water layer from its side walls.
 The film can be dried in normal room
temperature or drier can be used.
 At drying condition wet film should not
touched with dried hands because finger
print may occur on the film
EXPOSUR TIME FOR - GAMMA –
RAYS.
ET = (SFD)² × FF × 2^n × 60 / SS × RHM ×
100².

 SFD = Source to film distance.

 FF = film factor.
 n = material thickness / HVT of the material.
 SS = source of strength.
 RHM = Roentgen per hour at 1 meter distance.
 GAMMA – RAYS PROBLEMS.
1. Calculate ET required for taking a radiograph of 50 mm thick steel
by using ir 192 of ss = 30 ci, ff = 2, sfd = 300mm, rhm = 0.5, hvt =
1.3 cm.
MT = 50 mm
SS = 30 ci
SFD = 300 mm
RHM = 0.5
FF = 2
HVT = 1.3 cm.
ET = (30)² × 2 ×2 ^(5/1.3) × 60
ET = 900 × 2 × 2^(3.846) × 60 / 30 × 0.5 × 10000.
ET = 1800 × 2 ^ (3.846 ) × 60 / 0.5 × 300000.
ET = 1800 × 14.38 × 60 / 150000 = 10.35.
ET = 10.35 MINTS.
 EXAMPLE. 2.
• Calculate ET required for taking a radiography of 70 mm thick steel
by using co 60 of ss 40 ci, ff 2 sfd 3000 mm rhm 1.3
MT = 70 mm – 7 cm.
SS = 30 ci
FF = 2
SFD = 300 mm – 30 cm
RHM = CO 60 – 1.3 Mev.
HVT = 2
ET = (30)²× 2 × 2 ^(7/2) × 60 / 40 × 100² × 1.3
ET = 900 × 11.31 × 60 / 30 × 10000 × 1.3
ET = 610740 / 390000
ET = 1.566 MINTS.
 X – RAYS PROBLEMS.
• i1/d1=i2/d2

• i1 = milliamaperage from the chart /

miliampearage we use.
• d 1 = SFD from chart.
• i 2 = new exposure time.
• d 2 = new SFD.
 Example. 1.
• What is ET required for taking a radiography of
0.75” thick steel by using X- ray. Kv = 180, ma =
5, sfd = 46”.
• I1 = 9 / 5
• D1 = 40
(9/5) / (40)² = i2 = d²2
= 1.8 / 1600 = i2 / (46)²
= 1.8 / 1600 × 2116 = 2.3805.
ET = 2.3805 mints.
 Example 2.
• What is ET required for taking a radiograph of 1.25” thick
steel by using x- ray kv = 220, ma = 6, sfd = 50”
T = 1.25”.
KV = 220
MA = 6
SFD = 50
I1 / D²1 = I2 / D²2
10 / 6 / (40)² = I2 / (50)²
1.6 / 1600 × I2 / (50)² = 2.5. mints.
ET = 2.5 MINTS.
 EXAMPLE 3.
• What is ET required to taking a radiography of
1.5” thick steel using x- ray kv = 200, ma = 5, sfd
= 40”.
T = 1.5
KV = 200
MA = 5
SFD = 40.
55 / 5 / (40)² = I2 / (40)² = 11.
ET = 11 MINTS.
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
1. The quality of radiograph or sensitivity of process is
expressed in terms of image quality indicator or
penetrameter sensitivity.
2. These are small devices placed on the surface of the
specimen.
3. During exposure and visibility of their image on the
radiograph forms the made up of same or Radio
graphically similar material as the specimen being
examined.
4. The image of the IQI on the film / Radiograph is
permanent evidence that the radiographic examination
was conducted with proper procedure or condition.
 PROPERTIES OF IQI’S
(Penentrameter).

 Material should be preferable be the

same as that of the inspected.
 It must be sensitive in its reading to
changes in radiographic technique.
 Method of recording should be simple
 It should have means for identification.
 PLAQUE HOLE TYPE
PENENTRAMETER.
• The widely used American penentrameter are those
that follow the ASTM & ASME recommended design.
I. Identification of numbers and letters which specify
the material and specimen thickness for which it is
intended are foxed to each plate.
II. The ASTM penentrameter have drilled holes of 1T,
2T & 4T.
III. The thickness of each penentrameter is fashioned on
the levels of sensitivity desired.
IV. A one % penentrameter is one in which the thickness
of penentrameter correspond to 1 % of the specimen
thickness, a two percent penentrameter is the one
which has 2 % of the specimen thickness.
 WIRE TYPE PENENTRAMETER.
 Consist of a series of wires minimum length of
25 mm mounted side by side parallel with
distance between the axis of wires not less than
three times the wire dia. & not less than 5 mm.
 The wire are made of AL, Steel material.
 Similar to the inspection object can be used.
 Wire type having different wires of different
thickness.
 1. DIN TYPE.
• The DIN : German design. The Doutscho
Industries Normal. Are grinded in geometrical
progression with designation from 1-16.
• The 1st number wire having dia. 3.2 mm. and the
sixteenth wire having 0.10mm.
• Each wire is about 5 cms. Long.
• A set of 7 wires 5-mm apart is sealed rigidly in a
flexible plastic or rubber envelop.
• The ratio between the thickness of the adjacent
wires is 1.25.sec.
 2. ASTM TYPE.

• Consist of 4 sets of wire having diameters

from 0.0032 mm to 0.32mm. Each set has
6 wires.
 EQUIVALENT SENSITIVITY :-
• Is defined as thickness of IQI’S expressed in % in
which 2T hole would be visible under the same
condition in which the radiograph was made.

SE = n √ minimum dia. Of the visible hole

in terms of IQI thickness.
2T
n = IQI Thickness expressed as % of specimen
thickness.
T = IQI thickness.
 Examples.
1. Material thickness 50 mm quality level - 4 – 2T.
Dia.
Small hole = 4 % of MT.
= 4% of 50 mm.
= 2 mm.
hole visible = 2T.
= 2 × 2 = 4 mm sensitivity
 EXAMPLE. 2.
2. Material thickness = 25 mm. quality level
– 2 - 1T.

Dia of small hole = 2 % of MT

= 0.5 mm.
= hole visible 1T = 1 × 0.5 mm
= 0.5 sensitivity.
 RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE.
• Radiography technique can be affected by the
following parameters : -
1. RADIATION SOURCE
2. FILM
3. SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE.
4. RADIATION BEAM ALINGMENT.
A technique is selected on the basic of the
knowledge about of the following factors.
 R.T. FACTORS.
1. TEST OBJECT : -
 Types of material.
 Material thickness.
 Welding process.

2. FABRICATION PROCESS : -
 Edge preparation.
 Foundry technique.
 Mould preparation.
 TECHNIQUES.
1. SINGALE WALL SINGLE IMAGE : -(Penoromic shot).
 Total job has to cover and radiography can be taken at
a single time.
 source should be in center.
 Film kept out side the total weld area.
 if the center is not accessible or pipe dia is small the
source can be off the & the exposure can be taken.
 This technique is more sensitive for detecting root
defect.
 The area accessible interpretation will be small and the
entire weld is covered by taking exposure.
 Penentrameter minimum 3 can be used each 120º.
 2. DOUBLE WALL SINGLE
IMAGE. (Touching method)
 If there is no access to the inner side of the pipe
to keep either the film or the source this
technique may be adopted.
 Source should be touch to the weld job.
 This is mostly suitable for the piper of diameter
less than 3” inch.
 Source should be kept on the pipe or away from
the pipe depending on the pipe diameter.
 Penentrameter should be film side or between
film & job.
 Sfd required and accessibility .
3.DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
1. SUPER INPOSE : -
 In this method top image will create bottom &
bottom image will create top.
 Minimum 3 exposure at 120º can be taken.

2. ELIPTICAL : -
 Image will form elliptical shape.
 Minimum 2 exposure at 90º can be taken.
 DWDI.
 This technique is adopted for smaller size
pipes of diameter up to 3” inch .
 The source is kept at one angle with
respect to the weld so has to avoid over
lap of the top & bottom weld.
 Generally 10º - 12º offset angle is given for
the exposures.
 Two exposures are taken by rotating the
pipe through 90º.
 4. LATTITUDE.

 Used for different range of thickness.

 Mostly used for structural joints.

THANK YOU !