Do now task…..

1.What is a circadian rhythm?

2.Give two examples of a circadian rhythm
3.Who was the self-styled “cave-man” (cave studies)
4.In general what have “cave studies” shown about free running
circadian rhythms?
5.What are the practical applications of knowing about
circadian rhythms?

Extension: What is the main problem with research into circadian rhythms?
 Answers…..
1.A rhythm (biological) that repeats itself every 24 hours
2.Sleep/wake cycle and Body Temperature
3.Michael Sifrre
4.They last longer than 24 hours
5.Applications to shift work / Drug treatments

Extension: Small samples / poor control / individual differences

 Learning objectives
By the end of the lesson to:

• Describe Infradian and Ultradian

Rhythms (AO1)
• To apply Infradian and Ultradian
Rhythms to stem questions (AO2)
• Evaluate the strengths and limitations
of Infradian and Ultradian Rhythms as
explanations of Bodily Rhythms (AO3)
 Recap AO1

• All living organisms experience rhythmic

changes, which tend to coincide with seasonal
or daily (environmental) changes.

• Most organisms (incl. humans) have internal

biological clocks called endogenous
pacemakers.
 Recap AO1

• These biological clocks (endogenous

pacemakers) are influenced by external
environmental factors called exogenous
zeitgebers e.g. clocks / wristwatches / day &
night / mealtimes etc.
 Infradian rhythms AO1

• These are rhythms with a period of greater than a

day. This means that it takes LONGER than one day
(24 hours) to complete ONE CYCLE.
• The menstrual cycle is an example of an infradian
rhythm as it takes 28 days (on average) to complete
ONE cycle.
• Infradian rhythms that occur as a result of seasonal
changes, for example, migration and hibernation are
called circannual rhythms (take a whole year to
complete ONE cycle)
 Infradian rhythms AO1

• The menstrual cycle has a period of about 28 days,

although the timing can vary according to
environmental factors.
• For example, menstrual cycles may become
synchronised if women spend a lot of time together,
possibly due to the effect of pheromones passing
between them.

Pheromones are chemicals which are given off (scent) by people (and
animals) and get picked up by other people without realising and they
can affect our behaviour.
 McClintock (1998) AO1

• This involved 29 women with irregular

periods.
• Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9
of the women at different stages of their
menstrual cycle via a cotton wool pad in their
armpit. The pads were worn for 8 hours to
ensure they were collected properly. The pads
were treated with alcohol and frozen (so
sterilised)
 McClintock (1998) AO1

• On day 1, cotton pads from the start of the

menstrual cycle were applied to the upper lips
of all 20 women
• On day 2 they were all given the cotton pad
from the second day of the cycle and so on.
 McClintock (1998) AO1

Findings

• McClintock found that 68% of the women

experienced changes to their cycle which brought
them closer to the cycle of their ‘odour donour’.

• This study demonstrated synchronisation of the

menstrual cycle
 Infradian rhythms AO1

• Circannual rhythms are under the control of

body clocks (endogenous pacemakers).
• But, again, exogenous zeitgebers (in this case
the amount of daylight) makes them run on
time by influencing hormone levels
• In the case off SAD (seasonal affective
disorder) it affects a person’s melatonin
levels
 Infradian rhythms AO1

• It is how much light or the day length,

(known as the photoperiod) that provides
the useful information about the changes in
the seasons; as the days get longer it mean
that Spring and Summer are coming and as
the days get shorter it means that we can
predict the onset of Autumn and then Winter
Seasonal Affective Disorder
AO1
(SAD)
• This is a depressive disorder (described in DSM-5) with a
seasonal pattern.
• As with other forms of depression, the main symptoms of
SAD are persistent low mood (affect) alongside a lack of
activity and interest in life.
• SAD is sometimes called the ‘winter blues’ because
sufferers tend to experience depression during the winter
months (September to February) when the number of
daylight hours becomes shorter.
• It is more common in those who live a long way from the
equator.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
AO1
(SAD)
• In seams that SAD (winter depression) is linked to
increased levels of melatonin (making the individual
sleepy) and decreased levels of serotonin (making
the individual sad / lack of motivation etc.)

• This can be treated by

exposure to a bright
light for several hours
per day (SAD lamps
 Ultradian rhythms AO1

• These are rhythmic cycles with a period of

less than one day.
• Examples include levels of alertness
throughout the day and the cycle of brain
activity during sleep (sleep states).
 Ultradian rhythms AO1

• Electroencephalograms (EEGs) can show the

electrical activity of the brain.
• There are different patterns of activity at
different times during sleep (Rechtschaffen
& Kales, 1968).
EEG Traces
 Ultradian rhythms AO1

• You need to be aware of the stages of

sleep…..
• Stage 1 REM
• Stage 2 Stage 2
• Stage 3 Stage 3
• Stage 4 Stage 4 etc.
 Stages of Sleep AO1

Stage 1 (Non-REM)

• Theta waves, slow rolling eyes, easily

awoken, duration: about 10 minutes.
 Stages of Sleep AO1

Stage 2 (Non-REM)

• Irregular trace, some theta waves, sleep

spindles and K-complexes, duration: about
15 minutes.
 Stages of Sleep AO1

Stage 3 (Non-REM)

• Deep sleep, high amplitude delta waves (less

than 50% of trace).
 Stages of Sleep AO1

Stage 4 (Non-REM)

• Deep sleep, high amplitude delta waves

(more than 50% of trace).
 Stages of Sleep AO1
REM

• Beta waves, the body is paralysed, lots of

brain activity, eye movement, vivid and visual
dreaming.

• REM brain waves

are similar to the
brain waves of
being awake
Evaluation
 Evolutionary basis of
AO3
synchronising
• It may have been advantageous for our
ancestors to menstruate together from an
evolutionary point of view.
• Females would fall pregnant at the same
time meaning that new-borns could be
cared for collectively within a social group
increasing the chance of survival i.e. if one
of the mothers couldn’t produce milk
another of the females could help
 Evolutionary basis of
AO3
synchronising
• Schank (2004) argues that if there were
too many females ovulating at the same time
together within a social group, this would lead
to competition for the highest quality males

• So from this point of view, the avoidance of

synchrony of the menstrual cycle would be the
most evolutionary adaptive strategy and
therefore be naturally selected.
 Methodological limitations
AO3
in synchronisation studies
• Opponents of synchronisation studies like
McClintock argue that there are many factors
that may effect change in a woman’s menstrual
cycle – such as stress, changes in diet, exercise,
and age.
• All of these may act as confounding variables
which means that any supposed pattern of
synchronisation is no more than what would
have been expected to occur by chance.
 Support for the district
AO3
Stages of Sleep
• A major study that supports the stages of
sleep was carried out by Dement &
Kleitman (1957).
• They monitored the sleep patterns of 9
adult participants in a sleep laboratory.
• Brainwave activity was recorded on an EEG
and the researchers controlled for the
effects of caffeine and alcohol.
 Support for the district
AO3
Stages of Sleep
• REM activity during sleep was highly correlated with
the experience of dreaming, and participants woken
during REM reported very accurate recall of their
dreams.
• Brain activity also varied according to how wild and
vivid their dreams were
• Replications of this investigation report similar
findings and these studies suggest that REM sleep is
an important component of the ultradian sleep cycle.
Pheromones and Animal
AO3
Studies
• Most of our knowledge of the effects of pheromones on
behaviour is comes from animal studies and the
pheromones’ role in animal sexual selection.
• One example of this is sea urchins releasing
pheromones into the surrounding water so that other
urchins in the colony will eject their sex cells
simultaneously.
• In contrast, evidence for the effects on human
behaviour remains inconclusive and therefore any
research based upon animals may be difficult to
generalise to humans.
 Practical Applications - SAD AO3
• One of the most effective treatments for SAD
is phototherapy.
• This involves a lightbox that gives off a very strong light
in the morning and evening.
• It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with
SAD.
• Eastman et al (1998) suggest that phototherapy
relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
• However Eastman et al’s study also recorded a placebo
effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’
(participants were told it was another form of
treatment).
AO2
 Apply it AO2
Strengths

• Using an EEG is an objective measure. All the

participants are monitored in the same scientific
way so this increases the reliability and validity of
the findings from each participant’s brainwave
activity during their sleep.

• A further strength is EEGs collect quantitative

data that can be analysed statistically which may
make it easier to draw conclusions from the data.
 Apply it AO2
Limitations
• A limitation of measuring sleep and dreaming in a laboratory is
the way participants behave may be different than at home.
• They are aware that they are being observed in this setting
which could affect their sleeping patterns; the amount of REM
sleep may be different at home.
• Their reactions may not be typical.
• Also being hooked up to the EEG equipment may make it more
difficult to sleep because the participants may be
uncomfortable.
• With most sleep studies, the sample sizes tend to be very small
making generalisations difficult, particularly when there are
such great individual differences between participants.
• The EEG does not explain why the electrical activity is taking
place. The activity may not be caused by dreaming but by
some other factors.
AO2
 Apply it AO2

Group 2 is a control group. The purpose of a

control group is a source of comparison so the
psychologist is able to ascertain if the difference
in mood was due to the treatment received.
 Exam Questions
Outline one or more examples of ultradian
rhythms.

(Total 4 marks)
 Mark Scheme
[AO1 = 4]
• The most accessible example is the alternation between REM and
NREM sleep during the night.
• For marks in the top band candidates should provide some details of
this alternation, such as the number of REM episodes per night, the
link with stage 2 NREM, or the distinctive characteristics of each sleep
type.
• Other examples of ultradian rhythms include meal patterns in humans
and other animals and variations in locomotor activity in rats. (again,
for marks in the top band detail beyond a simple outline is necessary).
• Description of the stages of sleep without reference to the ultradian
rhythm can gain a maximum of 1 mark.
• Straightforward definitions are not credit-worthy. However, candidates
who provide an incorrect definition of an ultradian rhythm but present
an appropriate outline may earn marks across the scale.
 Mark Scheme
AO1 Mark Bands
4 marks Sound
Knowledge and understanding are accurate and well detailed.
Organisation and structure of the answer are coherent.
3 marks Reasonable
Knowledge and understanding are generally accurate and reasonably
detailed. Organisation and structure of the answer are reasonably
coherent.
2 marks Basic
Knowledge and understanding are basic/relatively superficial.
Organisation and structure of the answer are basic.
1 mark Rudimentary
Knowledge and understanding are rudimentary and may be very brief,
muddled and/or inaccurate. Lacks organisation and structure.
 Plenary
Complete the sentences by connecting each of
the sentence halves.
Plenary
 Homework
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian
rhythms.

(16 marks)