Research Methods for Business

A Skill Building Approach

By Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie

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 Chapter one
Introduction to research

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WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research is simply the process of finding solutions

(answer) to a problem (question) after a thorough
study and analysis of the issue of interest.

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research can be described as a systematic

and organized effort to investigate a specific
problem (question) relevant to business
organizations, which needs a solution (answer).

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DEFINITION OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

We can define business research as an organized,

systematic, data-based, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation to find answers to
questions relevant to business organizations.

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

1. The first step in research is to know where the problem

areas exist in the organization (Question),

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

1. The first step in research is to know where the problem

areas exist in the organization, and to identify as clearly
as possible the problems (question) that need to be
studied and resolved (answered).

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

1. The first step in research is to know where the problem

areas exist in the organization, and to identify as clearly
as possible the problems (question) that need to be
studied and resolved (answered).
2. Once the question (problem) that needs attention is
clearly defined, next step is to gather relevant
information (data).

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

1. The first step in research is to know where the problem

areas exist in the organization, and to identify as clearly
as possible the question (problem) that need to be
studied and answered (resolved).
2. Once the question (problem) that needs attention is
clearly defined, next step is to gather relevant
information (data).
3. Analyze the data to find the answer (solutions).

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SOME COMMONLY RESEARCHED AREAS IN BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS

1. Employee behaviors such as performance,

absenteeism, and turnover.
2. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, job
involvement, and organizational commitment.
3. Supervisory performance, managerial leadership
style, and performance appraisal systems.
4. Organizational performance.

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

1. Basic research “ fundamental – pure”

Research done to make a contribution to existing
knowledge
2. Applied research
Research done with the intention of applying the
results of the findings to solve specific problems
currently being experienced in an organization

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Basic research “ fundamental – pure”

investigating the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a matter of
mere academic interest.

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Basic research “ fundamental – pure”

investigating the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a matter of
mere academic interest. After gathering information on this topic
from several organizations and analyzing the data, one may
identify factors

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Basic research “ fundamental – pure”

investigating the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a matter of
mere academic interest. After gathering information on this topic
from several organizations and analyzing the data, one may
identify factors such as inflexible work hours, inadequate training
of employees, and low motivation as primarily influencing
absenteeism.

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Basic research “ fundamental – pure”

investigating the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a matter of
mere academic interest. After gathering information on this topic
from several institutions and analyzing the data, one may identify
factors such as inflexible work hours, inadequate training of
employees, and low motivation as primarily influencing
absenteeism. Later on, a manager who encounters absenteeism of
employees in his organization may use this information.

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TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Applied research
For example, a particular product may not be selling well and the
manager might want to find the reasons for this in order to take
corrective action. Such research is called applied research.

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MANAGERS AND RESEARCH

Knowledge of research and research methods helps

professional managers to:
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in
the work setting
2. Know how to discriminate good from bad
research
3. Hire researchers and consultants more effectively.
4. Combine experience with scientific knowledge
while making decision.

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THE MANAGER AND THE CONSULTANT-
RESEARCHER

Managers often need to engage a external

consultant to study some of the more complex,
time consuming problems that they encounter

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 THE MANAGERS – RESEARCHER RELATIONSHIP

During their careers, it often becomes necessary for managers to

deal with consultants, so while hiring researchers or
consultants the manager should make sure that:
1. The roles and expectations of both parties are made explicit.
2. Related philosophies and value systems of organization are
clearly stated and constraints, if any, are communicated.
3. A good rapport is established with the researchers, and
between the researchers and the employees in the
organization, enabling the full cooperation of the latter.

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INTERNAL CONSULTANTS / RESEARCHERS 1-2

Some organizations have their own consulting or

research department, which might be called the
management services department, the
organization and methods department, R & D

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INTERNAL CONSULTANTS / RESEARCHERS
Advantage of internal consultants /
researchers
1. Accepted by the employees
2. Less time to understand the
structure, work system
3. They are available to
implement their
recommendations, and deal
with any bugs
4. Less cost
Disadvantage of internal
consultants / researchers
1. Fall into a stereotyped way
of looking
2. Afraid of naming powerful
actors in organization
3. Not perceived as “ experts”
4. Biases of the internal
research team
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EXTERNAL CONSULTANTS / RESEARCHERS

Advantage of external consultants / Disadvantage of external consultants /

researchers researchers

1. Wide range of experience 1. The cost is high

2. Have more knowledge of 2. Much time to understand the
current sophisticated problem organization
– solving techniques 3. Additional fees for
implementation

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JOURNALS

Journal of Applied Psychology

Journal of Organizational Behavior
Journal of Finance
Journal of Corporate Finance
Strategic Management Journal
Academy of Management Journal
Harvard Business Review

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 Chapter two
Scientific investigation

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THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1-3

1. Purposiveness
Start the research with a definite aim or purpose.
2. Rigor
Rigor means carefulness, attention to details, and
preciseness in research investigations.
3. Testability
The questions, claims, propositions, and hypotheses can
be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data
collected for the purpose. (questions can be answered
with data or mathematically)

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THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 2-3
4. Replicability
The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and
yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar
circumstances.
5. Precision and confidence
Design the research in a manner the ensures that our findings are
close to reality.
Precision: reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis
of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.
Confidence: refer to the probability that our estimations are correct,
it is important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time
our results will be true and there is only a 5 % chance of being
wrong.
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THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 3-3

6. Objectivity
The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of
data analysis should be based on facts of the findings derived from
actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.
7. Generalizability
Refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.
8. Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and
in generating solutions for the problem,
And it can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem
(question) and the important factors that influence it.

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SOME OBSTACLES TO CONDUCTING
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE
MANAGEMENT AREA
In the management and behavioral areas, it is not
always possible to conduct investigations that are
100 % scientific, in the sense that, unlike in the
physical sciences, the results obtained will not be
exact and error-free.

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SOME OBSTACLES TO CONDUCTING
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE
MANAGEMENT AREA
In the management and behavioral areas, it is not
always possible to conduct investigations that are
100 % scientific, in the sense that, unlike in the
physical sciences, the results obtained will not be
exact and error-free. This is primarily because of
difficulties likely to be encountered in the
measurement and collection of data in the
subjective areas of feelings, emotions, attitudes,
and perceptions.
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TWO APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

� Induction
� Deduction

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 Induction
■ Induction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

In other words, in induction we logically

establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
 Deduction
■ Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact.

Example: we know that all high performers are highly

committed to their jobs.
If Ali is a high performer, we then conclude that he is
highly committed to his job
EXAMPLE (GENDER AND NARCISSISM)

� NARCISSISM
excessive interest in or admiration of oneself,
one's own talents and a craving for admiration.
excessive pride in one's appearance, qualities,
abilities, achievements, etc (self obsessed, self
appreciation)

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EXAMPLE (GENDER AND NARCISSISM)

� NARCISSISM
excessive interest in or admiration of oneself,
one's own talents and a craving for admiration.
excessive pride in one's appearance, qualities,
abilities, achievements, etc (self obsessed)
Males are more narcissist or females?

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EXAMPLE (GENDER AND NARCISSISM)

� Inductive reasoning: Observation that girls use

more cosmetics, more time to get ready, more
selfies more self obsessed

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EXAMPLE (GENDER AND NARCISSISM)

� Inductive reasoning: Observation that girls use

more cosmetics, more time to get ready, more
selfies more self obsessed

� Deductive reasoning: Systematic research

(question, hypothesis, data collection, analysis)

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EXAMPLE (GENDER AND NARCISSISM)

� Inductive reasoning: Observation that girls use

more cosmetics, more time to get ready, more
selfies more self obsessed

� Deductive reasoning: Systematic research

(question, hypothesis, data collection, analysis)
NO difference

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THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE
METHOD 1-2
1. Identify a broad problem area
A drop in sales, frequent production interruptions,… and the like, could
attract the attention of manager and catalyze the research project
2. Define the problem statement (research question)
Problem statement that stats the general objective of the research
should be developed
3. Develop hypotheses
In this step variable are examined as to their contribution or influence
in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved.
4. Determine measures
Unless the variables in the theoretical framework are measured in some
way, we will not be able to test our hypotheses.
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THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE
METHOD 2-2
5. Data collection
Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis need to be
obtained.
6. Data analysis
In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically
analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been
supported
7. Interpretation of data
Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not
by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis.

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 Chapter Three
The research process
The broad problem area and defining the
problem statement

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THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE
METHOD 1-2
1. Identify a broad problem area
A drop in sales, frequent production interruptions,… and the like, could
attract the attention of manager and catalyze the research project
2. Define the problem statement (research question)
Problem statement that stats the general objective of the research should
be developed
3. Develop hypotheses
In this step factors (variables) are examined as to their contribution or
influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be
solved.
4. Determine measures
Unless the variables in the theoretical framework are measured in some
way, we will not be able to test our hypotheses.
41
THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE
METHOD 2-2
5. Data collection
Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis need to be
obtained.
6. Data analysis
In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically
analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been
supported
7. Interpretation of data
Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not
by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis.

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The definition of problem is any situation where a
gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal
states.

Example: employees’ poor performance

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1. BROAD PROBLEM AREA :

After identification of the broad problem area

through the process of observation and focusing on
the situation

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1. BROAD PROBLEM AREA :

After identification of the broad problem area

through the process of observation and focusing on
the situation we need to be narrowed down to a
specific problem statement

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1. BROAD PROBLEM AREA :

After identification of the broad problem area

through the process of observation and focusing on
the situation we need to be narrowed down to a
specific problem statement after some preliminary
information (interviews and literature research) is
gathered by the researcher.

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1. BROAD PROBLEM AREA :

After identification of the broad problem area

through the process of observation and focusing on
the situation we need to be narrowed down to a
specific problem statement after some preliminary
information (interviews and literature research) is
gathered by the researcher.

causes–problem–consequences & symptoms

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2. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION GATHERING :

a) Data sources :
 
1. Primary data sources it is that information that
the researcher obtains by himself by , talking ,
observing, and administrating questionnaires

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2. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION GATHERING :

a) Data sources :
 
1. Primary data sources it is that information that
the researcher obtains by himself by , talking ,
observing, and administrating questionnaires
2. Secondary data sources it is that information that
already exists and the researcher has no role in
obtaining it but he reads it and take what he needs
from it
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Interviews and informal talks:

Unstructured interviews, structured interviews, and

a review through existing sources of information
will help us to narrow the broad problem area and
to define a clear problem statement.

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Collection of information about the following factors to explore
the real issues instead of working only on the surface symptoms
a) Contextual factors background information of the
organization
b) Structural factors philosophy, policies, goals, system
structure, reward system
c) Attitudinal factors information about beliefs and views of
the members of organization about nature of the work, reward
system , opportunities
d) Behavioral factors actual work habits

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In some cases there are variables that are not
identified during the interviews but influence the
problem critically, then research done without
considering them is an exercise in futility,

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In some cases there are variables that are not
identified during the interviews but influence the
problem critically, then research done without
considering them is an exercise in futility, in such
case the true reason for the problem will remain
unidentified even at the end of the research,

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In some cases there are variables that are not
identified during the interviews but influence the
problem critically, then research done without
considering them is an exercise in futility, in such
case the true reason for the problem will remain
unidentified even at the end of the research, to
avoid such possibilities the researcher needs to
delve into all the important factors relating to the
particular problem area.
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3. LITERATURE REVIEW :
� The literature review helps the researcher to
develop a good problem statement; it ensures that
no important variable is overlooked in the process
of defining the problem
� Sometimes the investigator might spend
considerable time and effort in “discovering”
something that has already been thoroughly
researched. A Literature review would prevent
such a waste of resources in reinventing the wheel.
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CONDUCTING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

1- Data sources
Text books, journals, theses, conference
proceedings, unpublished manuscripts, reports,
newspapers, the internet.

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2- Searching for literature
� Internet online searching directories (subject,
title, geographical location)
� Library

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Why literature review
� Important variables that are likely to influence
the problem situation are not left out of the study,
even if these had not surfaced during interviews.
� It gives a good basic framework to proceed
further with the investigation.

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4- Documenting the literature review
Is important to convince the reader that the
researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area
and has done the preliminary homework that is
necessary to conduct the research

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� The next step for the researcher is to tabulate the
various types of information that have been
gathered during the interviews and determine if
there are any patterns in the responses.

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� The next step for the researcher is to tabulate the
various types of information that have been
gathered during the interviews and determine if
there are any patterns in the responses.

� Depending on the situation, the type of problem

investigated, and the nature of some initial responses
received and literature review, certain factors may
have to be explored in greater depth than others.

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DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

� It is very important that symptoms of problems are not defined

as the real problem

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DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

� It is very important that symptoms of problems are not defined

as the real problem
� Managers sometimes look at the symptoms in problematic
situations and treat them as if they are the real problems, getting
frustrated when their remedies do not work. Understanding the
causes–problem–consequences sequence, and gathering the
relevant information to get a real grasp of the problem go a long
way in pinpointing it.

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DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

� It is very important that symptoms of problems are not

defined as the real problem
� Managers sometimes look at the symptoms in problematic
situations and treat them as if they are the real problems,
getting frustrated when their remedies do not work.
Understanding the causes–problem–consequences sequence,
and gathering the relevant information to get a real grasp of
the problem go a long way in pinpointing it.
� When you have defined the problem statement you are ready
to start your research (however you need to communicate the
problem statement and the budget).

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PROBLEM AREA :

Employees’ poor performance

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PROBLEM AREA :

Employees’ poor performance

job satisfaction is low

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PROBLEM AREA :
Employees’ poor performance

job satisfaction is low

Rewards
Supervision (abusive)
injustice
Training
Safety

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PROBLEM STATEMENT (RQ)
Problem definitions could pertain to:
� existing business problems where a manager is looking for a
solution
� situations that may not pose any current problems but which
the manager feels have scope for improvement
� situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research
question empirically because of interest in the topic

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ACADEMIC RESEARCH
If you have a research question which is not well explored by the
researchers, and you think that it is an important omission
in the literature.

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ACADEMIC RESEARCH
If you have a research question which is not well explored by the
researchers, and you think that it is an important omission
in the literature.

� Literature Review

� Your observation, other data

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 Chapter Four
The research process
Theoretical framework and hypothesis
development

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72
THE NEED FOR A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

�A theoretical framework is the foundation of

hypothetico-deductive research.

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THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK INCLUDES:

1. Introducing definitions of the concepts or

variables in your model.
2. Developing a conceptual model that provides
a descriptive representation of your model
3. Coming up with a theory that provides an
explanation for relationships between the
variable in your model.

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VARIABLES:

� A variable is anything that can take on

differing or varying values.
� Examples of variables are: no of units
produced, firm performance, job satisfaction,
absenteeism, and motivation.

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TYPES OF VARIABLES :

1- Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the variable of
primary interest to the researcher. Through the
analysis of the dependent variable is possible to
find answers to your questions.

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2- Independent variable
Independent variable is one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative
way. That is, when the independent variable is
present, the dependent variable is also present,
and with each unit of increase/decrease in the
independent variable, there is an increase or
decrease in the dependent variable.

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THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK INCLUDES:

� What are the causes of Abusive Supervision?

� Performance of employees

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THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK INCLUDES: EXAMPLE

� What are the causes of Abusive Supervision?

� Performance of employees
� Poor performance leads to abusive supervision

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THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK INCLUDES: EXAMPLE

� What are the causes of Abusive Supervision?

� Performance of employees
� Poor performance leads to abusive supervision

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THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK INCLUDES: EXAMPLE

� What are the causes of Abusive Supervision?

� Performance of employees
� Poor performance leads to abusive supervision

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3- Moderating variable
The moderating variable is the presence of a
third variable that modifies the relationship
between the independent and the dependent
variables.

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**SELF-EFFICACY IS THE BELIEF IN ONE'S CAPABILITIES, OR THE
DEGREE OF CONFIDENCE THAT PEOPLE HAVE IN THEIR ABILITY TO
SUCCEED AT A TASK THAT MATTERS TO THEM.

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4- Mediating variable
The mediator has been called an intervening or
process variable.

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85
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
� The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the
entire research project is based.
� Variables relevant to the problem situation, identified
through; interviews, observations, and literature review.
� Experience and intuition also guide the development of
theoretical framework
� Next step is to elaborate the network of associations among the
variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and
subsequently tested.
� Based on the results of hypothesis testing, the extent to which
the problem exists, or can be solved becomes evident.

86
� The theoretical framework:
o Represents and elaborates the relationship among the
variables.
o Explains the theory (logic, reasoning) underlying these
relations.
o Describes the nature and direction of the relationships.

Just as the literature review sets the stage for a good

theoretical framework, this in turn provides the logical
base for developing testable hypothesis.

87
BASIC FEATURES IN ANY THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK:

Both a diagram of the conceptual model and a

description of the relationships between the
variables in words should be given, so that the
reader can see and easily comprehend the
theorized relationships.

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HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

� The relationship between variables can be

expressed or written as a hypothesis.

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HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

� Hypothesis can be defined as logically

proposed relationships between two or more
variables expressed in the form of testable
statement.
� By testing the hypothesis and confirming the
proposed relationships, it is expected that
solutions can be found to correct the problem
encountered.

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STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS : FORMATS

1- If-Then statement
To examine whether or not the proposed
relationship or differences exist, a hypothesis can
be set in the form of If-Then statement.
Example:
IF the performance of employee decreases,
THEN abusive supervision increases

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2- Directional and non directional hypothesis
If, instating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups,
terms such as positive, negative, more then, less then, and the like are used, then
these are:
Directional hypothesis because the direction of the relationship between the
variables ( positive – negative) is indicated.
Example:
The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.
Non directional hypothesis there is a significant relationship between two
variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship is positive or
negative.
Example:
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.

92
3- Null and alternate hypothesis
�The null statement is expressed in terms of
there being no relationship or difference between
two variables.
�The alternate hypothesis, whish is the opposite
of the null, is a statement expressing a
relationship or difference between two variables.

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The steps to be followed in hypothesis testing
are:
1. State the null and the alternate hypothesis.
2. Choose the appropriate statistical test.

94
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

We formulate theory on the effect of board of

directors gender diversity on securities fraud.

� Social role theory of genders

� Females are less likely to engage in unethical
actions, kind, risk averse etc.
�Based on ethicality, risk aversion, and diversity,
we hypothesize that gender diversity on boards can
reduce the frequency of fraud.
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 Chapter Seven
Measurement
Scaling, Reliability, Validity

96
SCALES:

� Is tool or mechanism by which individuals are

distinguished as to how they differ from one to
another on the variables of interest to our study
� A tool to measure (differences between) different
objects

97
THERE ARE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF SCALES:

▪ Nominal scale

▪ Ordinal scale

▪ Interval scale

▪ Ratio scale

98
 Levels of Measurement
and Measurement Scales
Differences between Highest Level
measurements, true Ratio Data
zero exists (Strongest forms of
measurement)

Differences between
measurements but no Interval Data
true zero
Higher Levels
Ordered Categories
(rankings, order, or Ordinal Data
scaling)

Categories (no Lowest Level

ordering or direction) Nominal Data (Weakest form of
measurement)
Basic Business Statistics, 10e © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc..
 Levels of Measurement
and Measurement Scales
EXAMPLES:
Differences between Height, Age, Weekly Food
Ratio Data measurements, true
Spending
zero exists

Differences between Temperature in

Interval Data measurements but no Fahrenheit, Standardized
true zero exam score

Service quality rating,

Ordered Categories
Ordinal Data (rankings, order, or scaling) Standard & Poor’s bond
rating, Student letter
grades

Categories (no ordering Marital status, Type of car

Nominal Data or direction) owned

Basic Business Statistics, 10e © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc..

1- NOMINAL SCALE :

Allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain

categories or groups it categorize individuals or
objects into mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive groups, thus such scaling tells us
nothing more about the two groups and gives some
basic, categorical, gross information, personal data
such gender or department in which one works ,

101
There are two types :
a) Dichotomous scale :
Used to … elicit a yes or no answer
ex. Do you own a car? Yes no

b) Category scale :
Used to … elicit a single response
ex. Where in London do you reside?
- east London - south London
- west London - north London
-outskirts

102
 2- ORDINAL SCALE:
In this scale the respondents might be asked to indicate
their preferences by ranking the importance they attach to
different given options. Asking preference for five distinct
characteristics in a job that the researcher might be
interested in studying
Job characteristic Ranking of importance
The opportunity provided by the job to -
Interact with people -
Use a number of different skills -
Complete a whole task from beginning to end -
Serve others -
Work independently -

103
Here we know the differences in the ranking of objects,
persons, or events investigated but we don’t know their magnitude
There are two types:

•Fixed or constant scale:

The respondents are here asked to distribute a given number of
points across various items as shown in example:
Toilet soap
Fragrance 40
Color 10
Shape 10
size 20
Texture of lather 20
Total points 100
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• Graphic rating scale:
Used to obtain responses regarding people’s feelings with respect to
some aspect or how they feel about their jobs
It’s a graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this
scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the
appropriate point on the line
How would you rate your supervisor?

10 excellent 5 adequate 1 very bad

105
3- INTERVAL SCALE:

�Interval scales are numeric scales in which we

know not only the order, but also the exact
differences between the values (e.g. temp.)
�they don’t have a “true zero.” For example, there
is no such thing as “no temperature.”

106
This can be done by changing the scale from the ranking
type to make it appear as if there are several points on a
scale that represent the extent or magnitude. So it used
when responses to various items that measure a variable
can be tapped on a five points or more
Strongly disagree disagree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
Interacting with other 1 2 3 4 5

Using a number of different skills 1 2 3 4 5

Completing a task from beginning to 1 2 3 4 5

end
Serving others 1 2 3 4 5

Working independently 1 2 3 4 5

107
There are five types:
1) Semantic differential scale:
It is used to assess respondent’s attitudes toward a particular
brand, advertisement, object, or individual.
Several bipolar attributes: respondents are asked to indicate
their attitudes toward a particular individual, object
Several bipolar adjectives: used might employ such terms as
good-bad, strong-weak, hot-cold
Responsive -----unresponsive
Beautiful --------ugly
Courageous ------- timid

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1) Semantic differential scale:
How well we physiologically understand and express
our feelings. The basis is the use of adjective pairs,
applied to our experiences or feelings. The strength of
this approach is that we do not have to be an expert
interpreting our feelings, but giving objective feedback
based on additives we know connecting the emotional
to existing understanding.

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1) Semantic differential scale:
How well we physiologically understand and express
our feelings. The basis is the use of adjective pairs,
applied to our experiences or feelings. The strength of
this approach is that we do not have to be an expert
interpreting our feelings, but giving objective feedback
based on additives we know connecting the emotional
to existing understanding.

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2) Numerical scale :
Similar to the semantic scale but with numbers on
five-point or seven-point scale are provided

Extremely pleased 7654321 extremely displeased

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3) Itemized rating scale
It provides the flexibility to use as point in the scale as considered necessary
(4,5,7,9 or whatever) and its possible to use different anchors e.g. very
unimportant to very important and extremely low to extremely high )when a
neutral point is provided it is a balanced rating scale, and when it is not it is an
unbalanced rating scale.
1 2 3 4 5
Very unlikely Unlikely Neither unlikely nor likely Very likely
likely
1 I will be changing my job within the next 12 months  
2 I will take on new assignments in the near future  
3 It is possible that I will be out of this organization within the next 12 months  

It is balanced rating scale with a neutral point

  Not at all interested Somewhat interested Moderately interested Very much
1 2 3 interested
4
How would you rate 1 2 3 4
your interest in
changing current
organizational
policies?

It is unbalanced rating scale which does not have a neutral point.

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4) Likert scale:
Used in it the summated approach
My work is very interesting 1 2 3 4 5

I am not engrossed in my work all day 1 2 3 4 5

Life without my work would be dull 1 2 3 4 5

• Attempts to put a quantitative value to an emotional feeling the

respondent may have on an statement. 
• The scale, typically in 5 or 7 intervals, allows the respondent to
specify a neutrality well as extremes of agreement to particular
statement (strongly disagree----strongly agree). 
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5) Staple scale:
This scale measures both the direction and intensity of the
attitude toward the items under study
Rate your supervisor abilities:
+3 +3 +3
+2 +2 +2
+1 +1 +1
Adopting modern technology Product innovation Interpersonal skills
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3

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Semantic vs Likert:
Both scales essentially ask for intensity judgement,
but SDS is split in the middle where likert isn't. A
person filling and SDS scale will typically follow 2
steps:
� Is it good or bad? (one side or the other). If you
do provide a neutral option, this is also an option.
� How good or bad is it?

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Semantic vs Likert:
With a 5 point likert there are 5 intensities to
choose from. Although you can argue that the
middle point splits the scale to good and bad, the
fact there aren't two polars mean it ain't quite so.
Consider:
I think the site looks professional. (Answer: Disagree).
The person disagrees that the site looks professional, but
they may not think it looks amateur - on a SDS scale, they
may still mark the middle point.

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Semantic vs Likert:
Consider the following dialog:
- Do you think David Cameron is a good prime
minister?
- No I don't.
- Is he a bad one?
- I didn't say so, he isn't bad, but he isn't good.

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Semantic vs Likert:
� The down side of the Likert is the inability to quantify
anything rather than agreement to a question. We are
asking the respondent to respond to our question, rather
than express their feeling or emotion.
� Sometimes it is hard to find pairs to articulate exactly
what you wish to ask. How do you convert this likert to
SDS:

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I would recommend the site to friends:
� Strongly Agree
� Agree
� Neutral
� Disagree
� Strongly Disagree

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4- RATIO SCALE:
Usually used in organizational research when exact numbers on
objective (as opposed to subjective) factors are called:
1. How many other organizations did you work for before joining
this system?
2. Please indicate the number of children you have below 3 years of
age
3. How many retail outlets do you operate?

 The responses to the questions could range from 0 to any reasonable

figure.

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121
 RESEARCH DESIGN
� The function of a research design is to ensure that the
evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial
question as precisely as possible.
� In other words, when designing research we need to ask:
given the research question (or theory), what type of
evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the
theory) in a convincing way?
� The central role of research design is to minimize the
chance of drawing incorrect causal inferences from data.
Sample, data collection method, data type, data analysis

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Chapter Ten
Sampling

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SAMPLING
▪ It is the process of choosing a representative
sample from a target population and collecting
data from that sample in order to understand
something about the population as a whole.
▪ Sampling is necessary because we usually cannot
gather data from the entire population due to
large (country, city, etc.) or inaccessible
population or lack of resources. (costly in terms
of money, time, and effort)

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THE SAMPLING PROCESS:

125
DEFINITIONS:
� Population:
Group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes
to investigate.
� Element:

A single member of the population.

� Sample:

Some members selected from population (subset of population).

� Subject:

Single member of the sample.

� Parameter:

Characteristics of the population

� Statistic:

Characteristics of the sample

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127
THE SAMPLING PROCESS:
1- Defining the population:
Sampling begin with precisely defining the target population, the researcher
objective and the scope of the study play a crucial role in defining the target
population.
 
2- Determining the sample frame:
The sampling frame is a list of all the elements in the population from which the
sample is drawn (list of students in university).
 
3- Determining the sampling design: ( Two types )
Probability sampling, all the elements in the population have some known probability
of being selected as sample subject.
Non probability sampling, all the elements do not have a known chance of being
selected as sample subject.

128
THE SAMPLING PROCESS:

129
4- Determining the sample size:
Factors affecting decisions on sample size are:
Extent of precision desired.
Amount of variability in the population itself.
Cost and time constraints.
Size of the population.

130
RULES OF THUMB FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE
SIZE (ROSCOE, 1975)

1. Sample size larger than 30 and less than 500

2. A minimum sample size of 30 for each category is
necessary (male, female)
3. Should be several times (preferably 10 times or more)
as large as the number of variables in the study
4. For simple experimental research with tight
experimental controls (matched pairs, etc.), successful
research is possible with samples as small as 10 to 20

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

When elements in the population have a known

chance of being selected as subjects in the sample.
 Types of Probability sampling:
 1- Unrestricted or simple random sampling:
Every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected.

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2 - Restricted or complex probability sampling:
It is a design that involves drawing every nth element in the
population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1
Systematic sampling and n.
« Easy and quickness in developing the sample »

Population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are

Stratified random different. A random sample is selected from all groups.
sampling « Good choice when information is needed from different types
of groups (e.g. men, women)»

Target population is first divided into clusters. Then a random

sample of cluster is drawn and for each selected cluster either all
the elements or a random sample of elements are included in the
Cluster sampling sample.

When a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary

information of interest and later a subsample of this primary
Double sampling sample is used to examine the matter in more details.
« Provides added information at minimal additional expenditure

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

134
STRATIFICATION VS CLUSTERING
Stratification Clustering
Divide population in to groupsDivide population in to
different from each other: comparable (similar groups):
gender, race, age etc. schools, cities etc.
Sample randomly from each Randomly sample some of the
group. groups, sample randomly from
selected groups
Less error compared to simple More error compared to
random sample. simple random sample.
Expensive to obtain Reduces cost of sampling.
stratification information Information is not collected
before sampling. from all groups.

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136
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

137
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

138
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
When elements in the population do not have any
probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample
subjects.
 
Convenient Sampling:
Refers to the collection of information from members of the
population who are conveniently available to provide it.
It is used during the exploratory phase of a research project
and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information
quickly and efficiently.

139
Judgment and Quota sampling:
Judgment Sampling
Used when a limited number or
category of people have the
information that is sought.
« Help to obtain specialized
information »
Quota Sampling
In which a predetermined
proportion of people are sampled
from different groups.
« Allow inclusion of all groups »
1. Groups
2. Sample (convenient)
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JUDGMENT SAMPLING

� A pharmaceutical company wants to trace the

effects of a new drug on patients with specific
health problems (anemia, arthritis, etc.). It then
contacts such individuals and, with the group of
voluntarily consenting patients, tests the drug.
This is a judgment sample because data are
collected from appropriate special groups.
� CEOs of MNCs.

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BIASED SAMPLES (CONVENIENT, OR AFGHANISTAN)

142
BIASED SAMPLES

143
SAMPLING FOR QUALITATIVE STUDIES

� In qualitative studies, only small samples of

individuals, groups, or events are chosen

144
SAMPLING FOR QUALITATIVE STUDIES

� In qualitative studies, only small samples of

individuals, groups, or events are chosen
� Due to in-depth nature of the study (several
factors related to an individual, organization,
event, or phenomenon are studied)

145
SAMPLING FOR QUALITATIVE STUDIES

� In qualitative studies, only small samples of

individuals, groups, or events are chosen
� Due to in-depth nature of the study (several
factors related to an individual, organization,
event, or phenomenon are studied)
� Not possible with a large sample
(sample should be relevant to research question)

146
147
SPSS

148
SOME DEFINITIONS

� Population (universe) is the collection of things

under consideration
� Sample is a portion of the population selected for
analysis
� Statistic is a summary measure computed to
describe a characteristic of the sample

149
� Mean (average) is the sum of the values divided by the
number of values
� Median is the midpoint of the values (50% above; 50%
below) after they have been ordered from the smallest to the
largest, or the largest to the smallest
� Mode is the value among all the values observed that appears
most frequently
� Range is the difference between the smallest and largest
observation in the sample

150
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

� Variance (deviations) is a measure of the

dispersion of a sample (or how closely the
observations cluster around the mean [average])
� Standard Deviation, the square root of the
variance, is the measure of variation in the
observed values
151
STANDARD DEVIATION (LOW & HIGH)

152
STANDARD DEVIATION (LOW & HIGH)

153
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION (S.D.)

154
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

Use this step-by-step approach to find the standard

deviation for a discrete variable.
� Calculate the mean.
� Subtract the mean from each observation.
� Square each of the resulting observations.
� Add these squared results together.
� Divide this total by the number of observations
(variance, S2).
� Use the positive square root (standard deviation, S).

155
DATA TYPE & DATA ANALYSIS

156
157
CORRELATION

� Correlation is a statistical technique that can

show whether and how strongly pairs of variables
are related.
� For example, height and weight are related; taller
people tend to be heavier than shorter people.
� The relationship isn't perfect. But on average.

158
CORRELATION

� Most common type, called the Pearson or

product-moment correlation.
� Correlation works for quantifiable data in which
numbers are meaningful, usually quantities of
some sort.

159
CORRELATION
� The main result of a correlation is called the
correlation coefficient (or "r"). It ranges from -1.0
to +1.0. The closer r is to +1 or -1, the more
closely the two variables are related.
� If r is close to 0, it means there is no relationship
between the variables. If r is positive, it means
that as one variable gets larger the other gets
larger. If r is negative it means that as one gets
larger, the other gets smaller
160
CORRELATION

161
CORRELATION

� Correlation is not causation

� Pearson correlation technique works best with
linear relationships.
� An example of a curvilinear relationship is age
and health care. They are related, but the
relationship doesn't follow a straight line. Young
children and older people both tend to use much
more health care than teenagers or young adults.

162
CORRELATION

163
REGRESSION
� regression analysis is a statistical process for
estimating the relationships among variables.
� It includes many techniques (e.g. OLS) for
modeling and analyzing several variables, when
the focus is on the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent
variables (or 'predictors').
� Regression analysis is widely used for hypothesis
testing and forecasting
164
REGRESSION

� Regression is not causation

� Effect of several variables can be estimated
� Can be used to examine curvilinear relationships

� Y=a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3

165
CORRELATION VS REGRESSION

166
SPSS

• It uses both a graphical and a syntax interface

• Managing, analyzing, and presenting data

167
THANK YOU

168