NUCLEAR PHYSICS

DECAY RATE
 dN
DECAY LAW  N
dt
dN
• The rate of radioactive   N
dt
emissions of a radioactive dN
nuclide is directly   dt
N
proportional to the amount of
 N 
radioactive material present. ln    t
 N0 
Nt
λ = the decay constant  e  t
Nt = number of radioactive nuclei at time t N0
No = initial number of radioactive nuclei i.e. t=0 N0
 e t
Nt
 DECAY LAW
• So the decay of a radioactive element is
exponential
• The decay law does not say when a nucleus
will decay i.e. decay process is random.
• The decay constant is a measure of the rate at
which the nuclide releases radioactive
emissions.
 DECAY LAW
• Average lifetime of a radioactive nuclide is
given by:

• The rate of radioactive decay (-dN/dt) is called

the activity (A).
– Units are the Becquerel (Bq) and an activity of 1Bq
translates to one disintegration per second i.e. one
atom decays in one second.
– Currie(Ci) is also used where 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
 dN
Activity(A)   N
dt
dN
A  N
dt
Nt  t
e
N0
 t
N t  N 0e
 t
A  N 0 e
 HALF LIFE
• The rate of decay of a radioactive
nuclide is measured by its half-life
• The time required for half the material
to decompose. It is related to the decay
constant by:
 EXAMPLE
• After 500 years, a sample of radium-226 has
decayed to 80.4% of its original mass. Find the
half-life of radium-226.
0.804 N0=N0e-λ (500). (1/2)N0=N0 e-0.000436 t
Dividing through by N0 gives 1/2 = e-0.000436 t.
us: ln(1/2) = ln[e-0.000436 t].
0.804 = e-500λ ln (1/2) = -0.000436 t
ln ( 0.804) = ln (e-500λ) So
ln ( 0.804) = 500λ t= ln (1/2) /(-0.000436)
Therefore: t = 1590.
λ= (ln 0.804)/-500 The half-life is
λ= 0.000436 approximately 1589 years
 EXAMPLE
• A medical laboratory buys sample of a
radioactive isotope with 260mCi activity. The
sample has a half life of 18 days. How long
can the laboratory use the sample before its
activity decreases to 26mCi?
 EXAMPLE
0.693

t 1/ 2
0.693  7 1
 6
 4 .456 x10 s
1.555x10 sec onds
• Initial activity in Bq
A1 = 260 x 10-3 Ci x 3.7 x 1010Bq/Ci = 9.620 x 109Bq
• The next activity in Bq
A2 = 26 x10-3 Ci x 3.7 x 1010Bq/Ci = 9.620 x 108Bq
• Number of nuclides at the given activities:
N0=A1/λ and N= A2/ λ
 EXAMPLE
N0= 2.159 x 1016 and Nt=2.159 x 1015
 N0 
ln      t
 N 
 N0 
t  ln   
N
 2.159 x1016 
t  ln  15 
 4.456 x10 
7

 2.159 x10 
t  5.167 x10 6 s  59.8day  60days
 NOTE THE FOLLOWING
• Note: Alpha and beta particles are called
particulate radiation.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation.
• In a nuclear process, energy, mass, nucleon
and atomic number, are conserved.
 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
• Classically a bound system is at a lower
energy level than its unbound constituents, its
mass must be less than the total mass of its
unbound constituents.
• Mass deficit: difference between the mass of a
system and the sum of the masses of its
isolated parts.
 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
• Mass defect: difference between the unbound
system’s calculated mass and experimentally
measured mass of nucleus
• Mass defect =
(unbound system calculated mass) - (measured mass
of nucleus)
(sum of masses of nucleons) - (measured mass of
nucleus)
Einstein,while developing the theory of relativity suggested that mass and energy
are equivalent. if a body’s energy changes by E,, then its mass, m, must be changed
by the amount E/c2, where c is the speed of light.

te
No
This reasoning led to the equation E = mc2
 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
• When the nucleons form a nucleus, they lose a
small amount of mass, (there is mass defect)
The energy equivalent of the mass-defect is
the binding-energy.
binding energy = mass defect × c2
• the amount of energy required to break the
nucleus into protons and neutrons
 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
To convert the mass defect into energy:
Convert the mass defect into kilograms (1 amu =
1.6606 x 10-27 kg)
Convert the mass defect into its energy
equivalent using Einstein's equation
Eb =(Z × mH + N × mn – misotope)× 931.5MeV/amu

Eb = binding energy, in MeV

Z = number of protons
mH = mass of a hydrogen atom (1.007825 atomic mass
units,i.e. amu)
N = number of neutrons
mn = mass of a neutron (1.008664904 amu)
misotope = actual mass of the isotope
931.5 Mev/amu = the conversion factor to convert mass into
energy, in units of MeV
 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
(BE/A)
• As the number of particles in a nucleus
increases, the total binding energy also
increases.
• As the atomic number (Z) increases, the
repulsive electrostatic forces within the
nucleus increase. To overcome this increased
repulsion and maintain stability, the proportion
of neutrons in the nucleus must increase.
 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
(BE/A)
• As the nucleus gets bigger, the ability of the
strong force to counteract the electrostatic force
between the protons becomes weaker. As the
repulsive forces increase, less energy must be
supplied, on the average, to remove a nucleon
from the nucleus. That is, the BE/A has
decreased.
• The BE/A is an indication of a nucleus’ degree of
stability. In general, more stable nuclides have
higher BE/A than the less stable ones.
 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
(BE/A)
• The increase in the BE/A as the atomic mass
number decreases from 260 to 60 is the
primary reason for the energy liberation in the
fission process.
• The increase in the BE/A as the atomic mass
number increases from 1 to 60 is the reason for
the energy liberation in the fusion process,
which is the opposite reaction of fission.
The most tightly bound isotopes are 62Ni, 58Fe, and 56Fe, which have binding
energies of 8.8 MeV per nucleon. Elements heavier than these isotopes can
yield energy by nuclear fission; lighter isotopes can yield energy by fusion
 PRACTICE QUESTION
• Find the binding energy per nucleon of
copper-63 whose mass is is 62.91367 amu.
The mass of a proton=1.00728 amu and mass
of a neutron=1.00867 amu
 MASS EXCESS
• The difference between the actual mass of the nucleus
measured in atomic mass units and the number of
nucleons.
• Not the same as binding energy nor mass defect.
ME = mass – A where A= mass number
• Helps when deciding whether a radioactive decay will
occur and how much energy will be released.
• Radioactive decay processes will only occur if the mass
excess of the products is less than the mass excess of
the parent nuclide.
• Mass excess can be negative but mass defect is never
negative.
 EXAMPLE
1. A nucleus is composed of 9 protons and 11
neutrons and has a mass of 19.99999u.
a. Identify the element
b. What daughter nucleus would be formed if this
nuclide decays by alpha emission? Beta (electron)
emission?
c. Are either of the decay processes possible? Given
that 16N=16.00610u,
20Ne=19.99244u,4He=4.00260u and e-=0.00055u.
NA=6.023 x 1023/mole, h=6.63 x 10-34J.s, 1u= 1.6066 x 10-27kg, 1u= 931.5MeV
 EXAMPLE
• On the periodic table Fluorine corresponds to
a mass number of 9.
(i) Alpha decay yields :
20
9 F N  
16
7
4
2

(ii) Beta (electron) decay yields :


20
9 F Ne  
20
10
 EXAMPLE
• Condition for decay :mass excess of the daughter nuclides <
mass excess of the parent nuclide
Mass excess (F20) = 19.99999u – 20 = -0.00001u
• For alpha decay
– Mass excess of nitrogen = 16.00610u – 16 = 0.0061u
– Mass excess of alpha particle =4.00260u – 4 = 0.00260u
– Total mass excess = 0.00610u + 0.00260u = 0.0087u
• For the beta decay:
– Mass excess of neon = 19.99244u – 20u = -0.00756u
– Mass of the electron = 0.00055u
– Total mass excess = - 0.00756u + 0.00055u = -0.00701u
 EXAMPLE
• So by comparing the values: the mass excess
of the daughter nuclides for the beta decay
is less than that of the parent nuclide so it is
possible.
• For the alpha decay the mass excess of the
daughter nuclides is greater than that of the
parent, so it is not possible.
 Q VALUE.
• The energy change which occurs in a nuclear
process.
• Example: find the Q value when radium, 226
88 Ra

undergoes alpha decay to produce radon, the222

86 Rn
mass of radium, radon, and alpha particle are
226.0254u, 222.0176u, and 4.002602u respectively.
• Mass difference:
=226.0254 – (222.0176 + 4.0026) = 0.0052u
Q value= 0.0052u x 931.5 MeV/u = 4.8438MeV
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• A nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom
splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei)
• Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic
reaction which can release large amounts of energy
both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic
energy of the fragments
• Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because
the resulting fragments are not the same element as
the original atom.
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• In order to produce energy, the total binding
energy of the daughter nuclides must be greater
than that of the parent nuclide.
• May occur spontaneously (rare except for a few
heavy isotopes) as a type of radioactivity.
• It may be induced by bombardment with a
subatomic particle usually a neutron. This is
called a nuclear reaction.
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• Can be amplified and sometimes controlled via
a nuclear chain reaction where free neutrons
released by each fission event can trigger yet
more events, which in turn release more
neutrons and cause more fissions.
• Nuclear fuels: chemical element isotopes that
can sustain a fission chain reaction (are said to
be fissile). Examples are: 235Uand 239Pu
Find the energy released when 10kg of uranium 235 undergoes
fission as shown above. Masses are U235=235.04u, Ba 139= 140.91,
Kr 139= 91.91u, neutron=1.01u, 1u= 931.5MeV, Avogadro’s number
= 6.02 x 1023mol-1.
•Mass difference = (235.04 +1.01) – (140.91 + 91.91 + 3 x 1.01) = 0.20u
•Energy released per uranium atom = 0.2u x 931.5MeV/u = 186.3MeV.
•235.04 x 10-3kg uranium contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms, thus 10kg of uranium
will contain (10 x 6.02 x 1023) / ( 235.04 x 10-3) atoms = 2.56 x 1025 atoms
•Hence the energy released by 10kg uranium
•= number of atoms in 10kg x energy released per atom.
• = 2.56 x 1025 x 186.3Mev = 4.769 x 1027 MeV
 NUCLEAR FUSSION
• The process by which multiple atomic nuclei
join together to form a single heavier nucleus.
• There is either release or absorption of energy.
Generally, the fusion of two nuclei with lower
mass than iron releases energy while the fusion
of nuclei heavier than iron absorbs energy. The
energy is less than that produced in fission.
• Occurs naturally in stars.
Production of energy by fusion is still being developed.
 READING ASSIGNMENT
• Radiation hazards
• Detectors of radiation
– Geiger-muller tube
– Ionization chmber
– Cloud chambers
– Bubble chamber
– Photographic elmulsions
• Radiation decay series
• Count rate and how it is related to radioactive decay law.