UNIT 3

Active electronic devices 1

 Semiconductor
• Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such
as ceramics).
• Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure
elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories,
properties and mathematical approach governing semiconductors.
• Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the
most commonly used semiconductors.
• Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is
used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
 Energy Band Theory
• According to Bohr’s theory, every shell of an atom contains a
discrete amount of energy at different levels. Energy band theory
explains the interaction of electrons between the outermost shell and
the innermost shell.
• Based on the energy band theory, there are three different energy
bands:
1. Valence band
2. Forbidden energy gap
3. Conduction band
 Classification of material based on
band gap theory
• INSULATORS
 Classification of material based on
band gap theory
• CONDUCTORS
 Classification of material based on
band gap theory
• SEMICONDUCTOR
Types of Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor
material in its extremely pure form.
• Examples of such semiconductors are: pure germanium and silicon which
have forbidden energy gaps of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively.
• The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature; there
are many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the
small energy gap between the valence and the conduction bands.
• Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which
the number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or
doping agent or doping has been added in extremely small amounts
(about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic or impurity semiconductors.
• Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic
semiconductors can be sub-divided into two classes:
1. N-type semiconductors and
2. P-type semiconductors.
Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to the Density of electrons is not equal to

density of holes the density of holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well

as on the amount of impurity

No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent

impurity
N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
 N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material
like antimonty (Sb) is added to pure germanium crystal.
• As shown in Fig. below, each antimony atom forms covalent bonds
with the surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of four of its
five electrons.
• The fifth electron is superfluous and is loosely bound to the antimony
atom. 
• Hence, it can be easily excited from the valence band to the conduction
band by the application of electric field or increase in thermal energy.
• It is seen from the above description that in N-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the minority
carriers.
P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
 P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent like
boron (B) are added to a pure germanium crystal.
• In this case, the three valence electrons of boron atom form covalent bonds
with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete
and gives rise to a hole as shown in Fig. below.
• Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity causes as many positive
holes in a germanium crystal as there are boron atoms thereby producing a
P-type (P for positive) extrinsic semiconductor.
• In this type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement of holes in
the valence band.
PN Junction and Depletion Region
PN Junction and Depletion Region
• A PN junction (or P-N junction) is defined as an interface between two types of
semiconductor materials (p-type and n-type semiconductors) inside a single crystal of
semiconductor.
• The positive (“p”) side contains an excess of holes, while the negative (“n”) side
contains an excess of electrons in the outer shells of atoms within the
semiconductor.
• A PN-junction is formed when an n-type material is fused together with a p-type
material creating a semiconductor diode.
• We can create a PN junction by connecting face to face one p-type and one n-type
semiconductor crystal block via special techniques.
• More practically, we can form a p n junction by doping one side of a semiconductor
crystal by trivalent impurity and another side by pentavalent impurity.
• The side of semiconductor crystal where we doped trivalent impurity, is formed p-
type semiconductor and the side of semiconductor crystal where we doped
pentavalent impurity formed an n-type semiconductor.
PN Junction and Depletion Region
• The middle portion of the crystal where these p-type and n-type
semiconductors meet a typical junction formed which is known as P-N
junction.
• The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in
the formation of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction.
• This region is now free from movable charge carriers. The ions present here
have been stationary and maintain a region of space between them without
any charge carriers.
• As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also
called as Barrier junction. This has another name called as Depletion
region meaning it depletes both the regions.
• There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the
junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes
and electrons through the junction.
P-N Junction diode
 P-N Junction diode
• PN junction diode is basic semiconductor device called
semiconductor diode
• Diode means it is device having two electrodes
• The diode has two electrodes one each for the two regions on
either sides of junction
• The electrodes are names as anode and cathode
• The arrowhead in the symbol points in the direction of
conventional current through device
• The current will flow through the diode if an external voltage
source is connected to it with appropriate polarities
 Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction
Diode
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is
based on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction
diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to
the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.
Forward biased p-n junction diode
Reverse biased p-n junction diode
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 Diode Ratings
• Maximum repetitive reverse voltage = VRRM, the maximum amount of voltage the diode can
withstand in reverse-bias mode, in repeated pulses. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
• Maximum DC reverse voltage = VR or VDC, the maximum amount of voltage the diode can
withstand in reverse-bias mode on a continual basis. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
• Maximum forward voltage = VF, usually specified at the diode’s rated forward current. Ideally,
this figure would be zero: the diode providing no opposition whatsoever to forward current.”
• Maximum (average) forward current = IF(AV), the maximum average amount of current the
diode is able to conduct in forward bias mode. This is fundamentally a thermal limitation: how
much heat can the PN junction handle, given that dissipation power is equal to current (I)
multiplied by voltage (V or E) and forward voltage is dependent upon both current and junction
temperature. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
• Maximum (peak or surge) forward current = IFSM or if(surge), the maximum peak amount
of current the diode is able to conduct in forward bias mode. Again, this rating is limited by the
diode junction’s thermal capacity, and is usually much higher than the average current rating due
to thermal inertia Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
 Diode Ratings
• Maximum total dissipation = PD, the amount of power (in watts) allowable for
the diode to dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE) of diode current multiplied by
diode voltage drop, and also the dissipation (P=I2R) of diode current squared
multiplied by bulk resistance. Fundamentally limited by the diode’s thermal
capacity (ability to tolerate high temperatures).
• Operating junction temperature = TJ, the maximum allowable temperature for
the diode’s PN junction, usually given in degrees Celsius (oC). Heat is the “Achilles’
heel” of semiconductor devices: they must be kept cool to function properly and
give long service life.
• Storage temperature range = TSTG, the range of allowable temperatures for
storing a diode (unpowered). Sometimes given in conjunction with operating
junction temperature (TJ), because the maximum storage temperature and the
maximum operating temperature ratings are often identical. If anything, though,
maximum storage temperature rating will be greater than the maximum
operating temperature rating.
 Diode Ratings
• Thermal resistance = R(Θ), the temperature difference between junction and outside air
(R(Θ)JA) or between junction and leads (R(Θ)JL) for a given power dissipation. Expressed in
units of degrees Celsius per watt (oC/W). Ideally, this figure would be zero, meaning that the
diode package was a perfect thermal conductor and radiator, able to transfer all heat energy
from the junction to the outside air (or to the leads) with no difference in temperature across
the thickness of the diode package. A high thermal resistance means that the diode will build
up excessive temperature at the junction (where its critical) despite best efforts at cooling the
outside of the diode, and thus will limit its maximum power dissipation.
• Maximum reverse current = IR, the amount of current through the diode in reverse-
bias operation, with the maximum rated inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to
as leakage current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a perfect diode would block all current
when reverse-biased. In reality, it is very small compared to the maximum forward current.
• Reverse recovery time = trr, the amount of time it takes for a diode to “turn off” when the 
voltage across it alternates from forward-bias to reverse-bias polarity. Ideally, this figure would
be zero: the diode halting conduction immediately upon polarity reversal. For a typical
rectifier diode, reverse recovery time is in the range of tens of microseconds; for a “fast
switching” diode, it may only be a few nanoseconds.
  
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that

consists of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a
signal. It is a current controlled device.
• The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter.
• A signal of a small amplitude applied to the base is available in the
amplified form at the collector of the transistor.
• This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an
external source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.
Unbiased Transistor
 Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
There are three operating regions of a bipolar
junction transistor:
• Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an
amplifier.
• Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and
operate as a switch such that collector current is equal to the
saturation current.
• Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and
collector current is equal to zero.
Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor
 NPN Transistor
• An NPN transistor is the most commonly used bipolar junction
transistor, and is constructed by sandwiching a P-type
semiconductor between two N-type semiconductors.
• An NPN transistor has three terminals– a collector, emitter and
base. The NPN transistor behaves like two PN junctions diodes
connected back to back.
• These back to back PN junction diodes are known as the collector-
base junction and base-emitter junction. 
Working of NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor
• A PNP transistor is a bipolar junction transistor constructed by
sandwiching an N-type semiconductor between two P-type
semiconductors.
• A PNP transistor has three terminals – a Collector (C), Emitter (E) and
Base (B). The PNP transistor behaves like two PN junctions diodes
connected back to back.
• These back to back PN junction diodes are known as the collector-base
junction and base-emitter junction.
• The three terminals of the PNP transistor, the Emitter is a region is used to
supply charge carriers to the Collector via the Base region. The Collector
region collects most of all charge carriers emitted from the Emitter.
• The Base region triggers and controls the amount of current flows through
the Emitter to Collector.
Working of PNP Transistor
Circuit symbol and conventions
 Bipolar Transistor Configurations
• As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three
possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being
common to both the input and output.
• Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a
circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration   –   has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
 Common Emitter Configuration   –   has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration   –   has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
 Common Base (CB) Configuration
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
Common Collector (CC) Configuration
 Common Base (CB) Configuration
Input Output characteristic
Common Collector (CC) Configuration
Input Output characteristic
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
Input Output characteristic
 Characteristics of BJT
• BJT can be connected in three different configurations by keeping one
terminal common and using the other two terminals for the input and
output.  
• These three types of configurations respond differently to the input
signal applied to the circuit because of the static characteristics of the
BJT. The three different configurations of BJT are listed below.
 Common Base (CB) configuration
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration
 Common Collector (CC) Configuration
• Among these, the Common Base configurations will have voltage gain,
but no current gain, whereas the Common Collector Configuration has
current gain, but no voltage gain and the Common Emitter Configuration
will have both current and voltage gain.
 Regions of Operations of BJT

Region of Base Emitter Collector Base Applications

operation junction Junction

Active Forward bias Reverse bias Amplifier

Cut off Reverse bias Reverse bias Open switch(off)

saturation Forward bias Forward bias Close switch(on)

 Characteristics of different transistor
configurations 

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain low Very high medium

Current gain low medium high

Voltage gain High Medium low

Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high high low

Input Impedance Low medium high

Application of Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJT)
BJT can be used in various kinds of applications such as –
• logic circuits
• amplification circuits
• oscillation circuits
• multi-vibrator circuits
• clipping circuits
• circuits of the timer
• time delay circuits
• switching circuits
DC Load line
DC Load line
 DC Load line

Points A and B gives the extreme values of dc voltage and current in the circuit respectively.Hence
line joining these points is called DC load line.The characteristics drawn with this base current
ntersect the load line at a point known as Q point