Cells

https://youtu.be/gFuEo2ccTPA
https://youtu.be/gFuEo2ccTPA

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CELLS
Cells are the smallest living
things that can replicate
independently.
There are two basic types
of cells prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of
all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit
that is still classified as living, and is the building
block of all life. Some organisms, such as most
bacteria, are unicellular consisting of a single
cell. Other organisms, such as humans, are
multicellular (consist of two or more cells).
Humans typically consist of around 100 trillion
cells.
Cells consist of a
cytoplasm, a watery fluid
that contains many
biomolecules and other
cell components, that is
enclosed within a
membrane.
Prokaryote Cells
•Prokaryotes are a group of simple, single
celled organisms. They don’t have a nucleus
but have a single circular DNA that moves
freely within the cell. Due to the lack of the
nuclear membrane, the ribosome’s can
attach directly to the mRNA when it is still
being transcribed. Unlike eukaryotes, some
prokaryotes have plasmids, small circular
DNA, which can replicate independently of
the main chromosome and are a useful tool
in genetic engineering. Prokaryotes lack
most of the other organelles found in
eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are much smaller,
simpler organisms and were amongst the
first living thing in existence.
 Eukaryote Cells
Eukaryotes, contain a whole series
of different specialised cellular
structures with particular
functions. These structures are
known as organelles (little organs).
These organelles have different
structures depending on their
function.
Eukaryote cells have a nucleus
which is membrane-bound
(surrounded by a membrane),
unlike prokaryote cells.
Plants, animals and fungi are all
types of Eukaryotes.
Some other differences:
ORGANELLES
• https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8
• https://youtu.be/fKEaTt9heNM
• https://youtu.be/wRZthGlzEUc
ORGANELLES
     
•An organelle is a specialised
subunit within a cell that has a
specific function. Most organelles
are separately enclosed within their
own membrane (lipid bilayers).
Structure:  Outermost layer
surrounding animal cells and
within cell wall of plant cells.
Consists of a double layer of
molecules known as
phospholipids.
Function: It is selectively
permeable and controls the
movement of substances into
and out of the cell. The cell
membrane is involved
in secretion, diffusion,
osmosis and active transport .
Cytoplasm

Structure: A watery
solution containing
dissolved substances,
enzymes and cell
organelles.

Function: The cytoplasm

is the site of many
chemical reactions and
can act as a buffering
solution ensuring
appropriate conditions for
enzyme function.
Nucleus
Structure: Membrane enclosed
organelle which contains the cells
genetic material and nucleolus.
Function: Controls and regulates cell
activity. Often contains a dense spot of
genetic material (DNA) known as the
nucleolus.

Nucleolus
Structure: The nucleolus is the largest
structure in the nucleus.
Function: Primarily serves as the site
of ribosome synthesis and assembly.
Plasmids
structure: A plasmid is
a small DNA molecule
often found within
bacterial cells.
Function: It is
physically separated
from a chromosomal
DNA and can replicate
independently.
Mitochondria
Structure: Organelle bound by a
double membrane within the
cytoplasm. The inner layer
contains cristae- folds that
increase the internal surface area.

Function: Site of cellular

respiration; the conversion of
chemical energy (glucose) into
adenosine triphosphate (ATP-
cellular energy).
Ribosomes

Structure: Small structures that are either free within the cytoplasm or
attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum. These Ribosomes are made
up of RNA and proteins and may be .
Function: the site of translation (see genetics notes) phase of protein
synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Structure: Network of tubes and flattened
membrane sacs called cisternae within the
cytoplasm. May be rough (with ribosomes on
surface) or smooth (without ribosomes).
Function: The Rough E.R. is primarily involved
in protein synthesis. This occurs on small
structures within the cytoplasm, known as
ribosomes. The Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum is involved in the transport of
proteins, the production of lipids and steroids,
the metabolism of carbohydrates and steroids,
drug detoxification, etc.
Golgi Apparatus / Body

Structure: A series of flattened disc

shaped sacs called cisternae within the
cytoplasm, stacked on top of each
other which are connected with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Function: Stores, modifies and
packages proteins, including hormones
that are to be excreted.
Vesicles

Structure: Small organelle

within a cell, consisting of fluid
enclosed by a lipid bilayer
membrane.
Function: Vesicles store,
transport, or digest cellular
products and waste. Vesicles
can fuse with the cell/plasma
membrane to release their
contents outside of the cell.
Vesicles can also fuse with
other organelles within the cell.
Lysosome
    
Structure: Membrane sacs which
have pinched off from the Golgi
apparatus, containing enzymes and
other chemicals. Function: Packages
waste and contains enzymes and
chemicals which break it down.
Cilia

Structure: Long hair-like

structures protruding the cell
membrane. Cells with cilia tend
to have very large numbers of
them.
Function: Assist the cell in
movement. Also found on the
cells lining the airways (which
beat / move rhythmically in
order to expel material from the
lungs).
Flagellum

Structure: Long hair-like structure

protruding the cell membrane. Very similar
in structure to cilia, except much larger.
Cells tend to have only one flagellum (if
any).
Function: Assists the cell in movement.
Found in Prokaryotes and some unicellular
Eukaryotes
Centrioles

Structure: Small, barrel shaped organelles

within the cytoplasm. Centrioles consist of a
series of microtubules.
Function: Associated with formation /
positioning of spindle fibres during cell
division. Also play a role in the special
arrangement of the cell and the position
of flagella and cilia.
Only Found in Animal Cells.
Cell Wall

Structure: Semi-rigid structure outside

the cell membrane. The cell wall is
made of cellulose.
Function: Keeps the structure of the
cell and limits its volume by
preventing excessive fluid intake.
Only found in plants.
Chloroplasts

Structure: Organelle bound by a

double membrane within the
cytoplasm. Chloroplasts contain
a green pigment
termed chlorophyll.
Function: Site
of photosynthesis. Convert
energy from the sun into
chemical potential energy that
can be stored or used for
respiration.
Only found in plants.
Organelle Number & Distribution 
https://youtu.be/SKGerRwCiHE

Different tissues (e.g. muscle, bone, skin, etc.) perform different

function and therefore the cell types that make up these tissues
may need a different number / distribution of organelles.
Examples
       
Plant Cells
Plants cells have large numbers of chloroplasts (green)
in order to carry out photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are
usually found near the cell surface to reduce diffusion
distance. This ensures raid diffusion of carbon dioxide
into the chloroplast and oxygen out. You may notice
that chloroplasts circulate around the cell periphery.
This phenomenon is known as cytoplasmic streaming.
Plant cells are quite large and this helps to stir the
cytoplasm and distribute substances that would
normally take longer to diffuse throughout the cell.
Muscle Cells
Muscle cells have large numbers of
mitochondria (shown in brown) found
adjacent to the myofibrils (shown in
pink) -protein fibres that generate
muscle contractions. Muscle cells
require large amounts of energy (ATP)
to sustain movement and therefore
need large numbers of mitochondria to
carry out aerobic respiration and
produce cellular energy (ATP). Muscle
tissues also have an extensive network
of blood vessels that supply them
oxygen & glucose and remove carbon
dioxide.
Goblet Cells
Goblet cells are found within the lining of the
airways and intestines. Goblet cells secrete mucus,
which helps to lubricate surfaces and prevent
infection. Goblet cells have large numbers of
secretory vesicles that transport mucus to the cell
surface (exocytosis). The also have an
extensive endoplasmic reticulum' and large golgi
bodies'' needed to synthesise and the proteins found
in mucus (e.g. mucin).
Goblet cells have fewer mitochondria that are found
closer to those organelles involved in the the
production of mucus proteins (the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and golgi body). The nucleus
is aways found at the base of the cell as it is not
involved in the transport of mucus, whereas the
vesicles are fount at the cell apex near the intestine
/ airway surface.
 PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS

https://youtu.be/uohe2V4yOzE
https://youtu.be/gVLkKvSZ49Y
https://youtu.be/9UvlqAVCoqY
Comparison of Plant & Animal Cells
Plant Cells
Plant cells are surrounded by a tough cell wall made of cellulose. The
cell wall helps plant cells to maintain their shape and limits their volume
to the cells don't burst when they absorb water. Plant cells are not
necessarily square, but they due tend to have distinct edges and be
somewhat rectangular. This structure is caused by the cell wall which is
very rigid and therefore forces the cell to have a defined shape.
Plant cells also contain chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are small green, bean
shaped organelles and are the site of photosynthesis, allowing the the
pant to convert light (radiant) energy into chemical potential energy.
Plant often have a large central vacuole that stores water and salts (it
contains an aqueous solution of ions). The function of the vacuole is to
regulate the movement of water into the cell. It also plays an important
role in growth, regulating pH within the cell, storage and the removal of
waste.
Plant cells do not have centrioles.
Animal Cells

Animal cells have an irregular shape in

comparison to plant cells. Some animal
cells alter their shape depending on the
purpose (e.g. phagocytes).
Animal cells have many of the same
organelles as plant cells but also have
centrioles.
Summary:
         
CELL MEMBRANE

https://youtu.be/owEgqrq51zY
https://youtu.be/2Q1i_7zQGA4
https://youtu.be/9ILSsW3tXr8
Cell Membrane (plamsa membrane)

The membrane surrounding the cell and most organelles is made

largely of phospholipids. A phospholipid is a chemical group that
consists of a phosphate head and lipid tail(s). The phosphate
groups are charged and are attracted to water, they are
hydrophilic (water loving). The lipid groups are attracted to each
other and do not interact with water, they are hydrophobic
(water hating). As a result, the phospholipids arrange themselves
into a double layer in which all the hydrophobic lipid tails are
buried in the centre. Thus the cell membrane if often referred to
as a phospholipid bilayer.
Other components of the cell membrane:
Cholesterol - a type of lipid (hydrophobic) found among
the hydrophobic tails in the lipid bilayer. Cholesterol
regulates the fluidity of the membrane.
• Proteins - can function as enzymes to speed up
chemical reactions, act as receptors for for signalling,
or transport materials across the membrane. Proteins
can be found within the lipid bilayer (integral proteins)
or on either side.
• Carbohydrates -are sometimes found attached to
proteins or lipids on the outside of a cell membrane. It
plays an important role in cell recognition, helping the
body to distinguish between self and non-self.
Fluid Mosaic Model
The cell membrane is often described a "fluid mosaic"
because phospholipids and proteins embedded within
the membrane can move freely within the layer. The
membrane acts like a two-dimensional fluid through
which small clusters of proteins and lipids (called lipid
rafts) move like a raft does through the waters surface.
CELL TRANSPORT

https://youtu.be/SUyMRfuPQ_w
https://youtu.be/Svbf40z5obE

The movement of materials into and out of the cell is

essential for:
•the uptake of nutrients
•the elimination of wastes
•the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide for
cellular respiration
•cell signalling
Cell Transport
The movement of materials across the cell membrane is
highly regulated. This regulation is possible because the
membrane is selectively permeable -not all substances
are capable of moving across it. Some smaller
hydrophobic (non-polar / fat soluble) molecules are
able to diffuse directly through the membrane. Many
charged molecules (ions) are unable to diffuse through
the lipid layers of the membrane, while other
molecules may simply be too large. The transport of
most substances is mediated by specialised carrier
proteins embedded in the membrane. These proteins
not only regulate what crosses the membrane, but also
when substances are able to cross the membrane. For
instance during vigorous exercise more glucose must be
released into the blood-stream and absorbed by our
muscle cells.
Passive & Active Transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
•Substances are moved down their concentration
gradient, from an area of high to low concentration
•Does not require energy (ATP)
•May involve specialised proteins that facilitate the
movement of materials across the membrane
ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
•Substances are moved against their concentration
gradient, from an area of low to high concentration
•Requires energy (ATP)
•Requires specialised proteins that force materials
across the membrane
ACTIVE TRANSPORT

https://youtu.be/VaP_CBBARSI
https://youtu.be/yz7EHJFDEJs
https://youtu.be/BZGskh9CxnI
Active Transport
In order for a cell to move molecules into / out of the
cell against their concentration gradient, the cell must
actively pump the molecules across the cell membrane.
This is known as active transport and usually involves
special proteins found in the cell membrane.
   
These proteins are sometimes referred to as ion
pumps because they are often involved in the
transport of charged molecules that cannot
easily traverse the lipid centre of the
membrane. When a particular molecule binds to
the protein pump, it changes shape forcing the
molecule across the membrane against its
concentration gradient. This requires cellular
energy in the form of ATP. Some of these protein
pumps will transport a single type of molecules,
while other can transport two or more molecules
in the same or even opposing directions
Key Ideas:
•Active transport is an active process
that requires energy (ATP).
•Active transport moves molecules
against their concentration gradient
•Active transport relies on specialised
proteins embedded within the membrane
ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS

https://youtu.be/qpw2p1x9Cic
https://youtu.be/DuDmvlbpjHQ
https://youtu.be/4gLtk8Yc1Zc
Endocytosis 
Endocytosis is a special form of active transport
used to transport material that are too large to
diffuse through the membrane to be transported
through membrane proteins. Endocytosis involves
absorbing materials from outside the cell by
engulfing them in the cell membrane. The
membrane encloses the material and buds off to
form a vesicle. This often fuses with a lysosome (full
of digestive enzymes) to enable the digestion of the
contents.
Endocytosis is often a receptor mediated process.
This simply means that receptors on the cells surface
will recognise particular materials and mediate their
ingestion.
There are two forms of
Endocytosis:
•Phagocytosis The ingestion
of solids from outside the
cell. Some white blood cells
ingest pathogens/foreign
material.
•Pinocytosis the ingestion of
fluid into the cell.
Exocytosis   
Exocytosis is essentially just the reverse
process. Materials to be secreted are
transported to the cell surface in a vesicle (a
small membrane bubble). The vesicle fuses
with the cell membrane and its contents are
released.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT

https://youtu.be/NlfRGsFJxuQ
https://youtu.be/L4Tbi1ql-tU
Passive Transport
Passive transport is the movement of substances across the
membrane. Unlike active transport substances move down
their concentration gradient and the process does not require
energy, relying solely on diffusion.
Diffusion is the movement of particles down a concentration
gradient. Diffusion is the result of random particle movement
and results in the net movement of particles from an area of
high concentration to low concentration. Individuals particles
do not move in any particular direction, but overall there are
more particles moving down the concentration gradient. The
word diffusion is actually derived from the Latin word,
"diffundere", which means "to spread out" (if a substance is
“spreading out”, it is moving from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration).
Diffusion across the membrane
Some substances, especially
smaller & non-polar molecules,
are able to diffuse directly
through the membrane. For
instances dissolved gasses such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide can
diffuse directly through the
membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion

The membranes hydrophobic layer

(formed by the lipid tails) can prevent
the diffusion of charged molecules
across the membrane. Thus, cells will
often incorporate specialised proteins
called ion channels into the membrane
that act that like a tunnel, allowing
specific ions to diffuse through them.
This is driven solely by diffusion, it does
not require cellular energy and the
molecules will move down their
concentration gradient.
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water https://youtu.be/6MWl3DCa2uM
OSMOSIS across a selectively-permeable membrane

The cell membrane is selectively permeable -

this means that it only lets certain things
across. In the example above, the membrane
does not allow the movement of the solute
(e.g. sugar) across the membrane. However,
water is able to more freely across the
membrane. Water will diffuse from an area of
high water concentration to an area of low
water concentration. Because the presence
of the solute (e.g. sugar) effectively lowers
the concentration of water, water molecules
will move from left to right down its
concentration gradient.
Tonicity

Tonicity is a measure of the relative concentration of solute particles on either

side of a semi-permeable membrane (e.g. inside a cell versus outside the cell).
Only solutes that cannot cross the membrane contribute to tonicity. It
determines the direction and extent to which water moves by osmosis. The
higher the tonicity the greater the difference in the concentration of solutes
(dissolved substances) and therefore the concentration of water.

https://youtu.be/6MWl3DCa2uM
https://youtu.be/7rX1jNDUsXU
https://youtu.be/SSS3EtKAzYc
Hypertonic Solution
Isotonic Solution Hypotonic Solution
A hypertonic solution will A hypotonic solution will
An isotonic solution will
have higher concentration have a lower concentration
have an equal concentration
of dissolved solutes than of dissolved solutes than the
of solutes to the solution
the solution inside the solution inside the cell.
inside the cell. Therefore an
cell. Therefore a Therefore a hypotonic
isotonic solution has an equal
hypertonic solution has a solution has a higher
concentration of water to the
lower concentration of concentration of water than
solution within the cell. As a
water than the solution the solution within the cell.
result, water moves in and
within the cell. As a result As a result a hypotonic
out of the cell at an equal
a hypotonic solution will solution will force water into
rate. There is no net
force water out the cell the cell (there is a net
movement of water
(there is a net movement movement of water into the
of water out the cell). cell).
Effect on Animal Cells (Red Blood Cells)
A hypertonic solution causes water to
move out of the cell and the cell becomes
shrivelled. Red blood cells develop a star-
shaped appearance that resembles a spiked
ball (they become crenated).
An isotonic solution does not result in any
net movement of water in / out of the cell
and so it remains unaffected.
A hypotonic solution causes water to move
into the cell. Animal cells do not have a
tough cellulose wall and if water continues
to move into the cell pressure builds until
ultimately the cell bursts (cell lysis)
Effect on Plant Cells
A hypertonic solution causes water to move out of the
cell and the cell membrane tears away from the cell wall
in a process called plasmolysis
An isotonic solution does not result in any net movement
of water in / out of the cell, however, a plant cell may
become flaccid (soft, drooping or inelastic).
A hypotonic solution causes water to move into the cell.
The tough plant cell wall limits the cells volume
preventing it from bursting. Eventually no more water
can move into the cell, but instead the internal pressure
of the cell increases. The cell membrane starts to push
against the cell wall. This is known as turgour
pressure and it causes the plant cells to
become turgid (swollen and firm). Plants rely on turgour
pressure to maintain their rigidity. This is why placing
flower stems in a hypotonic solution helps to prevent
them from wilting.
 Water potential:
Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water to move from one area
to another, and is commonly represented by the Greek letter Ψ (Psi). Osmosis
will from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Pure water has a higher water potential than saltwater so water

PRESSURE POTENTIAL

Https://youtu.be/503wr50XH50
 RATE OF DIFFUSION ACROSS THE MEMBRANE https://youtu.be/vm75teMOF1Y
      
Membrane Temperature and Concentration Surface Area:
Pressure: Gradient: The larger the
Thickness:
As with any chemical The greater the area over which
For Nutrients to concentration
reaction, increasing the diffusion can
diffuse into a cell they gradient (the
temperature or pressure occur, the greater
must traverse the cell increases the kinetic difference in the rate of
membrane. Cell energy of the particles, concentration diffusion
membranes are thus increasing the rate either side of the
extremely thin to of diffusion membrane) the
allow for the diffusion greater the rate of
of materials across the diffusion
cell membrane.
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO https://youtu.be/pv_-RWaADwk
Diffusion and Cell Size
The larger a cell is, the greater the surface area
available for diffusion. So why are cells so tiny?
Although increasing the size of a cell would
increase its surface area, it would also increase the
cells volume and thus its demand for nutrients etc.
In fact, increasing the size of the cell has a much
greater effect on the cells volume than it does on
its surface area. If a cell is too large, nutrients
simply aren’t able to diffuse through the entire Surface Area : Volume
volume of the cell quickly enough. Surface area to volume ratio can also be used to explain
Materials must be able to reach all parts of a cell the shape of many cells / cellular surfaces. For example
quickly, and when volume is too large relative to the folds inside the mitochondria or the flat pan-cake
surface area, diffusion cannot occur at sufficiently like structures inside chloroplasts provide a greater
high rates to ensure this. surface area on which specific reactions can occur. The
Smaller cells have a much greater surface area to folds in the lining of our stomachs or the tiny cellular,
volume ratio allowing material to diffuse finger-like projections that protrude from the wall of the
throughout the entire volume of the cell quickly intestine (villi) all act to increase the surface area
and efficiently. without increasing the overall size or volume of the
organ.
 ENZYMES https://youtu.be/XTUm-75-PL4
https://youtu.be/feik6wOXFA0
https://youtu.be/BbQrHocvVrc

Enzymes are protein catalysts that

speed up the chemical reactions
necessary for life
     
Enzymes are a type of protein. Proteins are
made out of a long chain of amino acids (a group
of small chemical molecules). The amino acid
chain is a folded into a precise shape that gives
the protein it's function. Enzymes act as
biological catalysts. They speed up chemical
reactions without being used-up themselves. The
names given to enzymes typically end with -ase
Enzyme Action
Enzymes temporarily combine with the
chemicals involved in a reaction. These
chemicals are called the substrate. The
combination is called the enzyme- substrate
complex. When the enzyme and substrate
combine, the substrate is changed to a
different chemical called the product. The
enzyme is not consumed or altered by the
reaction.
Lock & Key Model
The part of the enzyme where the substrate
binds is called the active site. Enzymes are
highly specific and will only bind one type of
substrate. It was originally suggested that this
was because an enzyme and substrate both
possess specific complementary geometric
shapes that fit exactly into one another. This
is often referred to as "the lock and key"
model. An enzyme only fits one particular
kind of substrate in the same way that a lock
only fits one particular kind of key.
Induced Fit Model
The lock and key model was later revised slightly.
Since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the
active site is continually reshaped by interactions
with the substrate. As a result, the substrate does
not simply bind to a rigid active site; the part of
the protein which makes up the active site is
moulded around the substrate for an even more
precise fit. This very slight change in shape
(conformation) is what allows the enzyme to carry
out its catalytic function.
 https://youtu.be/qy3ua2SWyko
ACTIVATION ENERGY [ENZYMES] https://youtu.be/Dd1yi2aVoOc
https://youtu.be/D0ZyjpAin_Y
Enzymes and Activation Energy
All chemical reactions require some energy
input to begin. The amount of energy
needed before a reaction will proceed on
its own is called activation energy. Energy
is needed to break existing bonds before
new bonds can be formed. The formation
of new bonds may release more energy
than was needed to break the original
bonds. Even though there may be a net
(overall) release of energy, the need for
activation energy can act as a barrier to
the chemical reaction occurring.
Enzymes lower the barriers that
normally prevent chemical reactions
from occurring by decreasing the
required activation energy. The the
initial rise in energy seen in the graph
(left) is the energy input needed
before the reaction will occur
(activation energy). The subsequent
drop in energy is the energy released
by the reaction. You can see that the
reaction requires less activation
energy when an enzyme is present
(red line). This is why the addition of
an enzyme allows a reaction to
proceed at a much faster rate.
Energy
In order for a chemical reaction
to occur the reactants must
collide with sufficient kinetic
energy and a specific orientation.
The reactants must collide with
enough energy to break existing
bonds. This is the activation
energy that is required for the
reaction to begin. However, less
energy is needed if the reactants
collide at the right angle.
An enzyme reduces the
activation energy needed for a
reaction to occur by providing
the reactants with better
orientation, thereby increasing
the frequency of successful
collisions and the rate of
reaction.

Digestive Enzymes
Digestive enzyme break down food
particles into smaller
soluble molecules that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream.
Protease             
Protease enzyme break down
proteins into amino acids. Pepsin is
a powerful protease found in the
stomach that works best in a very
acidic environment. Other
protease enzymes are produced
by the pancreas and function at
a pH closer to 7.
Lipase
Lipase enzymes are produced by the
pancreas and break down Lipids into
Monoglycerides (a glycerol molecule with
a fatty acid attached) and fatty acids.
Cellulase
Cellulose, just like starch, is also Amylase
made up of a long chain of sugar Amylase is an enzyme that is
molecules. However, because they produced both in our saliva
are linked together differently (the and by the pancreas. It
bond is in a different position) breaks down carbohydrates
amylase cannot break down cellulose. into sugars.
Many bacteria produce an enzyme
called cellulase that can break down
cellulose.
ENZYME ACTIVITY -FACTORS https://youtu.be/nyH9wynolnk

Enzyme Activity

The following factors can all affect the rate of a enzyme controlled
reaction:
•Temperature
•pH
•Salinity
•Substrate Concentration
•Enzyme Concentration
•Enzyme Cofactors
•Enzyme Inhibitors
Denaturing
The function of an enzyme is determined by it's precise 3-dimensional shape.
An enzyme is made of a long chain of amino acids. Weak inter-molecular
bonds cause the chain to fold into its specific shape. Some factors can
disrupt these bonds and the chain of amino acids will unfold. The enzyme
denature (loses its precise 3-D structure) and the substrate will no longer fit
into the active site. As a result no enzyme-substrate complex is formed
limiting the rate if reaction. This loss of structure is permanent and cannot
be reversed.
ENZYME COFACTORS https://youtu.be/OJhdag89Pq4
https://youtu.be/2rV8vty5UF8
Co-factors https://youtu.be/LaF41Ec4bVA
A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is
required for the protein's biological activity. Many
enzymes require cofactors to function properly.
Cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that
assist enzymes in their action. Cofactors can be ions or
organic molecules (called coenzymes). Organic
cofactors are often vitamins or are made from
vitamins. Small quantities of these vitamins must be
consumed in order for our enzymes to function
correctly.

Mechanism of Action
Many cofactors will sit in the enzyme active site and
assist the binding of the substrate. An inactive enzyme
without the cofactor is called an apoenzyme, while the
complete enzyme with cofactor is called a holoenzyme.
ENZYME INHIBITORS An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that https://youtu.be/PILzvT3spCQ
binds to an enzyme and decreases its https://youtu.be/SU-1ZINvqrE
https://youtu.be/GLF3ywsK04M
activity.
Competitive Inhibitors

A competitive inhibitor binds reversibly to the enzyme

active site. This prevents any substrate from binding
to the enzyme. Less enzyme-substrate complexes are
formed slowing down the reaction rate.
Competitive inhibition can be overcome by increasing
the substrate concentration. Because the inhibitor and
substrate are in competition for the active site,
increasing substrate concentration increases the
likelihood that that substrate will bind and the
reaction will progress normally.
Non-Competitive Inhibitors
A non-competitive inhibitor does not bind to the active
site, instead it binds to a regulatory region sometimes
referred to as a allosteric site. When a non-competitive
inhibitor binds to an enzyme it causes it to change shape
(a conformational change). The structure of the active site
is altered and the substrate will no longer fit into the
active site. As a result no enzyme-substrate complex is
formed slowing down the reaction rate. Because the
inhibitor does not compete for the active site, increasing
the substrate concentration has no affect on enzyme
activity.
Reversible & Irreversible

Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible inhibitors

usually react with the enzyme and change it chemically (e.g. via covalent bond
formation). These inhibitors modify key amino acid residues needed for
enzymatic activity. In contrast, reversible inhibitors bind non-covalently.

Application

Enzyme inhibitors can be used as herbicide and pesticides, to kill pathogens, to

treat metabolic imbalances
Many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors, so their discovery and
improvement is an active area of research in biochemistry and pharmacology.
 https://youtu.be/D2j2KGwJXJc
ENZYMES -pH
The pH at which enzyme activity is
pH and Enzyme Activity highest is known as the optimum pH.
Every enzyme will have its own
Enzymes are a type of protein. Proteins are optimum pH. For instance pepsin, a
made out of a chain of amino acids that fold up digestive enzyme in the stomach, has
into a very specific shape. Weak interactions an optimum pH of around 2. Other
between amino acids on different parts of the digestive enzymes such as amylase in
saliva function best at a pH around
chain are what give the protein / enzyme its
7.
shape. Changes in pH can disrupt the weak
interactions that hold proteins together (The
H+ and OH- ions can interfere with
intermolecular bonds that hold the enzyme
together. Changes in pH can cause an enzyme
to denature (lose their precise shape) and the
substrate won't fit into the active site. Once an
enzyme has denatured, it will not function
again.
 https://youtu.be/D2j2KGwJXJc
ENZYMES -TEMPERATURE https://youtu.be/x39S0IAPWK4
Temperature & Enzyme Activity
Low Temperatures
At low temperatures enzymes are simply inactive. As temperature is increased
the enzymes and substrate gain kinetic energy (move more quickly). This
increases the frequency of collisions and the formation of enzyme-substrate
complexes. Therefore as the temperature is increased the enzyme activity
and the rate of reaction increases.
Optimum Temperatures
Every enzyme has an optimum temperature; the temperature at which the
enzyme activity is greatest. This can be different from one enzyme to the
next, but enzymes within the human body tend to have optimum
temperatures around 37°C.
High Temperatures
Enzymes are a type of protein. Proteins are made out of a chain of amino
acids that fold up into a very specific shape. Weak interactions between
amino acids on different parts of the chain are what give the protein /
enzyme its shape. If the temperature is increased too greatly, this will disrupt
these weak bonds and cause the protein to denature (change shape) and the
substrate won't fit into the active site. Once a protein has been denatured, it
will not function again. However, some proteins have a higher optimum
temperature (such as those found in microorganisms that live in geothermal
pools).

ENZYMES & SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
Substrate Concentration
Increasing substrate concentration increases the
frequency with which the enzyme and substrate
collide. As a result enzyme-substrate complexes form
more quickly and the rate of reaction increases.
However, there is a limit as eventually there all the
enzyme active sites are already occupied with
substrate - the enzyme active sites become
saturated. Any further increase in substrate
concentration has no further effect on the reaction
rate.
https://youtu.be/EeovHW0nBJ8
Enzyme Concentration
https://youtu.be/zcsjXmJwyUU
Increasing the amount of enzyme also increases
the frequency of with which the enzyme and
substrate collide. As a result enzyme-substrate
complexes form more quickly and the rate of
reaction increases. However, there is a limit as
eventually there will be more enzyme molecules
that substrate. Some enzymes become redundant
as they won't have any substrate to bind. Any
further increase in enzyme concentration has no further
effect on the reaction rate.
Note that if there is excess substrate (the first part of the
graph) the line can be approximated to a straight line.
ALLOSTERIC ENZYMES

https://youtu.be/fyww37XOrXo
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS https://youtu.be/co0JdqUlycg
https://youtu.be/lDwUVpOEoE4

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants capture the energy of light and turn it into
chemical potential energy of organic food molecules (glucose).

Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light is captured by chlorophyll – a green

coloured pigment found within tiny organelles
called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are found in the
green parts of plants, especially leaves. This
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and
water into oxygen and glucose (a type of sugar).
Energy is stored within the bonds of the glucose
molecules. Many plants will link the glucose
molecules together to store them as starch.
This process is essentially the reverse of
respiration (compare the two formulae).
 https://youtu.be/YCYv1_g4Vz8
https://youtu.be/BkrcNjONv20

CROSS SECTION OF A LEAF

         
LEAF PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
Cuticle: A waxy layer that prevent water loss by evaporation. The cuticle is transparent and very thin to allow maximum light
penetration.
Upper Epidermis: A protective layer of cells that produces the cuticle. The epidermis is is also transparent and very thin to
allow maximum light penetration.
Palisade Mesophyll: Rod shaped cells that contain large numbers of chloroplasts for photosynthesis. These cells are located
close to the leaf surface to maximise light absorption. They are upright, elongated and tightly packed together in order to
increase the surface area for light absorption. Chloroplasts are found near the palisade cell surface to maximise light
absorption and to reduce the distance that carbon dioxide and oxygen have to diffuse (to / from the chloroplast stoma)
Spongy Mesophyll: These cells are smaller than those of the palisade mesophyll and are found in the lower part of the leaf.
They also contain chloroplasts, but not quite as many. These cells have large air spaces between them that allow carbon
dioxide and oxygen to diffuse between them. The air spaces also gives these cells a large surface area to maximise the
diffusion of carbon dioxide into the cell and oxygen out of the cell.
Vein: Plant veins consists of xylem (vessels that carry water) and phloem (vessels that carry dissolved nutrients such as sugar).
These vessels play an essential role in transporting water to the chloroplasts in the mesophyll tissues for photosynthesis. They
also transport the sugar produced by photosynthesis away from these cells to the rest of the plant tissues to be used as an
energy source or stored.
Lower Epidermis: A protective layer of cells. The lower epidermis produces a waxy cuticle too in some plant species. The
lower epidermis contains pores called stomata that allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in and out of the plant
respectively.
Stomata: Tiny pores (small holes) surrounded by a pair of sausage shaped guard cells. These cells can change shape in order to
close the pore. In very hot conditions water inside the leaf evaporates and the water vapour can escape through the stomata.
Closing them prevent reduces water loss, but also limits the diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out of the leaf.
 https://youtu.be/iXY6J3nMjR4
PHOTOSYNTHESIS -STAGES https://youtu.be/sQK3Yr4Sc_k
Photosynthesis involves a series of https://youtu.be/TGxyKpmrUfI
reactions that convert light (radiant)
energy in chemical potential energy in the
form of glucose. The process begins when
chlorophyll a green pigment absorbs light.
Chrolophyll is found embedded within the
internal folds of the chloroplasts inner
membrane. These membrane folds form
disc-like structures called thylakoids.
These discs are arranged into stacks
called grana which are connected to one
another and the inner membrane by
membranous extensions called lamella.
The clear fluid inside the chloroplast is
known as the stroma.
Photosynthesis actually involves a series of
chemical reaction. They key stages have
been outlined below.
The Light-Dependent Phase: https://youtu.be/BK_cjd6Evcw
https://youtu.be/yNv-8oKW0Ww
Water → Oxygen + Hydrogen +
ATP

Photosynthesis begins when chlorophyll

in the thylakoid membrane absorbs light
energy. This energy is ultimately used
to split water into oxygen & hydrogen
and to produce a few ATP molecules.
The hydrogens produced are picked up
by a special carrier molecule known as
NADPH. The folded structure of the
thylakoid membranes provides a larger
surface area on which the light-
dependent reaction can occur.
Light-Independent Phase: https://youtu.be/VIRlT91yPnM
https://youtu.be/0UzMaoaXKaM

Hydrogen + Carbon Dioxide →

Glucose

This phase is also known as the Calvin

Cylce or the dark phase because it doesn't
require light. NADPH carries the hydrogens
produced during the light-dependant phase
into the stroma. Here the hydrogen’s are
combined with CO2 to make glucose (a
carbohydrate). This can also be referred to
as carbon fixation or the synthesis
phase because carbon dioxide gas is used to
make (synthesise) to glucose (an organic
material).
 https://youtu.be/2YABZiYkEuQ
https://youtu.be/go8V2GQq268
RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light Wavelength
Light Intensity There are actually many different types of
Increasing light intensity will increase the rate of chlorophyll, the most common / important of
photosynthesis, but only up to a certain point. these (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) both
Eventually the rate plateaus (levels off) as other absorb light most strongly in the red and blue
factors become limiting (e.g. CO2 and water regions of the spectrum. As a result, green light
availability). is reflected and the plants appear green.
Note that altering the light intensity can also Altering the wavelength can also affect the rate
affect the temperature (see below). of photosynthesis. For instance, plant growth is
poor under green lights as most of the light is
reflected.
CO2 Concentration

Increasing CO2 will increase the rate of photosynthesis, but only up to a certain point.
Eventually the rate plateaus (levels off) as the chloroplasts become saturated with CO2 or
other factors become limiting (e.g. light intensity).

Enzyme Activity
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions. Many of these reactions are catalysed by
enzymes. Enzyme activity is affected by a range of factors including:
•pH
•temperature
•enzyme concentration
•substrate concentration - the availability of the reactants (Water & Carbon Dioxide)
•product concentration - the build up of products (Oxygen & Glucose) can limit
photosynthesis
•enzyme inhibitors
 https://youtu.be/Xp0o19gWX7E
CELLULAR RESPIRATION https://youtu.be/00jbG_cfGuQ
https://youtu.be/FHWbjnzfi_U
The food we eat contains the energy we require for all our cellular
processes. However, the chemical potential energy in food must be
converted to a form that is actually usable by all our cellular
components. Cellular respiration is the process by which the
chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules, such as glucose, are
converted into a form of energy usable for life processes. This usable
form of energy is known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a
small energy carrier molecule that can be used by all the different
cell organelles and is required in virtually every cellular process.
Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Cells with high energy
demand such as muscle cells or motile cells such as sperm cells will
have large numbers of mitochondria in order to produce sufficient
cellular energy (ATP) through respiration.
Firstly glucose is split into half forming two pyruvate molecules. This
occurs in the cell cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. If no
oxygen is present, anaerobic respiration or fermentation occurs
where the pyruvate is broken down into Lactic Acid or Alcohol and
yielding only a little energy (2 ATP).
Aerobic Respiration: https://youtu.be/k2oGAru9bSY
Aerobic respiration is a type of respiration that requires https://youtu.be/P27djgzRL8c
https://youtu.be/00jbG_cfGuQ
oxygen. Glucose reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water as well as a large amount of energy (ATP)

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP (lots of energy)

Aerobic respiration is a form of cellular respiration that uses

oxygen. Aerobic respiration yields much more energy than
anaerobic respiration. This is actually why we breathe; oxygen is
needed by our cell so that they can carry out aerobic respiration.
Without oxygen our cells would not be able to convert our food
(chemical potential energy) into enough usable energy and all
our cellular processes would come to a halt.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Cells with high
energy demands such as muscle cells will have larger numbers of
mitochondria so that they can produce more energy (ATP) by
aerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration actually involves a series of chemical
reaction. They key stages have been outlined below.
 https://youtu.be/8Kn6BVGqKd8
https://youtu.be/EfGlznwfu9U
Glycolysis

Glucose → Pyruvate + ATP

Glucose is split in half forming two pyruvate molecules. This process does

not require oxygen.

If no oxygen is present the pyruvate can be broken down into Lactic Acid
or Alcohol yielding a little extra energy (2 ATP). This is known
as anaerobic respiration or fermentation.

Gylcolysis occurs in the cell cytoplasm

 https://youtu.be/juM2ROSLWfw
https://youtu.be/JPCs5pn7UNI
Krebs Cycle

Pyruvate → Carbon Dioxide + Hydrogen + ATP

The pyruvate molecules then combine with an enzyme

cofactor called Coenzyme-A producing Acteyl-CoA. Acetyl-
CoA then enters the Krebs Cycle (also known as the TCA or
Citric Acid Cycle); a series of reactions that ultimately yields
carbon dioxide and hydrogen as well as a little energy (2
ATP). Coenzyme-A is recycled in the process. The overall
reaction can be summarised as above.

The krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix (the fluid

inside the mitochondrion).
 https://youtu.be/xbJ0nbzt5Kw
Electron Transport Chain https://youtu.be/mfgCcFXUZRk

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

The hydrogens produced in the Krebs cycle are
carried by a special carrier molecule known
as NADH through the electron transport chain
(also known as respiratory chain). This involves
a series of reactions that take place on the
surface of the cristae (the folds of the inner
membrane).

The folded structure of the cristae increases the

surface area for these reactions to occur. In this
process oxygen is added to the hydrogen to yield
water and large amounts of energy (ATP).
Aerobic Respiration Rate
Aerobic respiration is a series of chemical reactions. Each one of the reactions is
catalysed by an enzyme. Enzyme activity is affected by a range of factors including:
•pH
•temperature
•enzyme concentration
•substrate concentration - the availability of the reactants (Glucose & Oxygen)
•product concentration - the build up of respiratory products (Carbon Dioxide & Water)
can limit aerobic respiration
•enzyme cofactors - essential for transporting substrate molcules into enzyme active
sites (e.g. NAD+ and CoenzymeA)
•enzyme inhibitors
https://youtu.be/IljrD6nW4Z8 https://youtu.be/cDC29iBxb3w
https://youtu.be/UoEE9-wUdZ4

Anaerobic Respiration:
Anaerobic respiration is a type of respiration that does not use oxygen.

Glucose → Lactic Acid (and a little energy is released)

In mammals, during periods of intense physical activity, there may not be sufficient oxygen for aerobic respiration to
meet the energy demands of the contracting muscle cells. Energy production can be supplement by breaking down
Glucose into Lactic acid. While anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen it is less efficient, producing significantly
less energy for each Glucose molecule. In mammals anaerobic respiration cannot be sustained for long periods of time
as the build up of lactic acid would become toxic (the acidity affects proteins in our tissues). The build up of lactic
acid is one of the reasons our muscles are often sore after intense exercise. The lactic acid is later be broken down
into carbon dioxide and water. This type of respiration may be used when, for example, an animal is being chased by a
predator.

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide (and a little energy is released)

Anaerobic respiration in plant cells and some microorganisms (such as yeast) produces ethanol and carbon dioxide, as
opposed to lactic acid. Ethanol is a type of alcohol and this is why yeast is used to make beer and wine.

Glucose → Methane + Carbon Dioxide (and a little energy is released)

Some bacteria will produce methane (a flammable gas) as a product of anaerobic respiration.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) https://youtu.be/rrFi7GWt_GY
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a
small energy carrier molecule that can
be used by all the different cell
organelles and is required in virtually
every cellular process.
ATP carries this energy in a chemical
bond between the second and third
phosphate. When ATP is used in cellular
process (by enzymes), this bond is
broken releasing the energy stored in
the bond.
The resulting products, adensoine
diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate ion
can be recycled / recharged through the
process of respiration which converts
them back to their high energy form
(ATP).
 DNA STRUCTURE https://youtu.be/jMgfEkv8tDU
https://youtu.be/8kK2zwjRV0M
DNA or Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid is made up
of three simple chemical groups repeated
millions of times. These three chemical
groups; phosphate, sugar and base (or
nitrogenous base) together form the simple,
repeated unit of DNA; a nucleotide.
Nucleotide:
The phosphate & sugar groups are strung together end to
end to form the back-bone of the DNA molecule where
the sugar molecule of one nucleotide attaches to the
phosphate of the next nucleotide.
However, DNA is double stranded –it is made up of two
of these nucleotide strings. DNA is often described as a
twisted ladder where the sides (back-bones) of the
ladder are made up of repeating sugar – phosphate
groups. The runs / steps are made up of the bases.
DNA contains 4 different types of bases A (Adenine), T
(Thymine), C (Cytosine), G (Guanine). These bases can
pair with each other by forming hydrogen bonds. It is
these bonds that hold the two nucleotide strands
together. Base pairing always follows these simple rules:
•A (Adenine) always pairs with T (Thymine)
•C (Cytosine) always pairs with G (Guanine)
The two nucleotide strands are actually twisted around
each other giving DNA its ‘double helix’ structure.

If you look very carefully at the DNA structure you will

notice that the two strands are anti-parallel -they run in
opposite directions (look carefully at the sugar molecules
on each strand).
 DNA REPLICATION https://youtu.be/dKubyIRiN84
https://youtu.be/8kK2zwjRV0M
The purpose of DNA replication is to
produce two identical copies of a
DNA molecule. This is essential for
cell division during growth or repair
of damaged tissues. DNA replication
ensures that each new cell receives
its own copy of the DNA. DNA
replication is said to be semi
conservative, this is because the
original DNA strands are split in two
and each half is used as
a template to make the
complementary strand (the other
half). The complementary strands
are made using free nucleotides that
are floating around the nucleus.
The semi-conservative nature of DNA
replication is possible because of the base
pairing rules. It is very important that a cells
machinery matches the bases correctly so
that the sequence remains unchanged / no
mutations occur or the cell may not function
properly.
Following DNA
replication chromosomes consist of two
copies and this is when they are best viewed
under the microscope. Each copy is referred
to as a Chromatid and the region where they
are held together is called the Centormere.
 DNA REPLICATION (LEADING & LAGGING)  https://youtu.be/TEQMeP9GG6M
https://youtu.be/TudeT0-Lves
https://youtu.be/H_l0rnvPcTA
DNA REPLICATION
DNA replication is carried out by a series of
enzymes. DNA Helicase is an enzyme that
breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two
strands together. It essentially acts like the
slider on zipper. In the diagram below DNA
helicase is unzipping the DNA strands as it
moves from right to left. The point where
the two strands are split is called
the replication fork. The exposed strands
can then be copied by an enzyme called DNA
polymerase which matches the exposed
bases with nucleotides carrying a
complementary base. However, because the
two strands are anti-parallel (they run in
opposite directions) the two new strands are
synthesised in opposite directions.
Which end is which?

Because the two strands are anti-parallel biologists

found it necessary to some how label the two strands
accordingly. Eventually it became common practise
to refer to one end of each strand as the 3' (three
prime) end and the other end of each strand as
the 5' (five prime) end.

This is actually based on the sugar molecules within

each strand. The carbon atoms in the sugar molecule
of each strand can be numbered starting with the
carbon that is bound to the base and going clockwise
from there. You will find that at one end of each
strand the 5th carbon is bound to the phosphate at
the end of the strand.

At the other end the 3rd carbon has an OH group at

the end of the strand. DNA nucleotides can only be
added to this end and the phosphate of a free
nucleotide will form a bond with this OH group.
The Leading & Lagging Strand

DNA polymerase can only synthesise DNA in a 5'

→ 3' direction (because nucleotides can only be
added to the 3' OH). One strand can be
synthesised continuously as DNA polymerase can
simply follow-on behind DNA helicase as it unzips
the two strands. This is known as the leading
strand.

The other stand, known as the lagging

strand must be synthesised in short bursts. On
this strand DNA polymerase moves away from the
replication fork. As soon as DNA polymerase has
finished copying one section another section has
already been unzipped by DNA helicase and is
waiting to be copied. Thus the lagging stand is
synthesised in sections called Okazaki
fragments (after the scientist who discovered
them). Another enzyme joins these fragments
together ensuring the lagging strand becomes
one continuous strand.
 https://youtu.be/5qSrmeiWsuc
DNA REPLICATION (STAGES & ENZYMES) https://youtu.be/8kK2zwjRV0M
Step One
An enzyme calledHelicase breaks
the hydrogen bonds between the
bases of the two antiparallel
strands. The strands are initially
split apart in areas that are rich
in A-T base paris (there are only
two bonds between Adenine and
Thymine) forming a replication
fork. DNA Gyrase (also called
Topoisomerase) relieves tension
that builds up as a result of
unwinding. Single strand binding
proteins (SSBs) help to stabilise
the single stranded DNA.
Step Two
RNA polymerase (also
known as RNA Primase)
synthesizes short RNA
nucleotides sequences that
act as primers (starters).
These essentially provide a
starting point for DNA
replication.
Step Three
DNA Polymerase III can now start
synthesising the new DNA strand using
free DNA nucleotides. However, DNA
polymerase can only read the original
template (parent strand) in the 3’ → 5’
direction (making DNA 5’ → 3’). This is
not a problem on the leading strand,
because the DNA polymerase can
simply continue to read along as the
two parent stands continue to unzip.
Step Four
On the lagging strand DNA polymerase
moves away from the replication fork. As
the strands continue to unzip more DNA
is exposed and new RNA primers must be
added. As a result the lagging strand is
synthesised in short bursts as DNA
polymerase synthesizes DNA in-between
each of the RNA primers.
Step Five
The newly synthesised lagging strand now
consists of both RNA and DNA fragments.
The DNA fragments are known as Okazaki
fragments, after a Japanese scientist who
noticed that heating DNA during
replication, which separates the strands,
gave many small fragments of DNA. From
this he concluded that one stand must be
synthesized in short bursts of DNA.
Step Six Step Seven
DNA Polymerase I now removes the RNA DNA Ligase joins the DNA fragments of the lagging
primers and replaces them with DNA strand together to form one continuous length of
DNA.

                                   
          
Telomeres During DNA replication the enzymes (polymerase) that duplicate the chromosome
and its DNA can't continue their duplication all the way to the end of the chromosome. At the
very ends of the DNA, are long non-coding region of Repeats known as telomeres. Every time the
DNA is replicated the telomeres shorten slightly. It is believed that this may be the genetic basis
for the aging process.

Proof Reading and Correction

DNA replication occurs at a surprisingly fast rate. Despite this, errors are very rare; occurring at
a rate of approx. 1 in every 10,000,000,000 base pairs. This is much lower than the expected
value of about 1 in every 100 bp. This is the result of a complex series of enzymes that proof-
read the new DNA strands and make corrections where needed.
MESELSON-STAHL EXPERIMENT https://youtu.be/KCvTNEUMtLg
Meselson-Stahl Experiement
The Meselson-Stahl experiment was relatively
straight forward and has even been called "the
most beautiful experiment in Biology". It
highlights how a series of relatively simple
procedures can provide insights into the
unseen world of molecular biology. The
experiment can essentially be broken down
into the following
0) Bacteria ('E.coli') were grown on a substrate (food) that contained an isotope of nitrogen (N15)
that is heavier than than most nitrogen atoms normally found in the environment. The base pairs in
DNA contain nitrogen (that is why they are referred to as nitrogenous bases). After several
generation the bacteria had incorporated the isotope into their DNA making it slightly more dense
(heavier) than normal. The DNA was extracted and centrifuged in a salt density gradient, where the
DNA separates out at the point at which its density equals that of the salt solution. As expected, the
DNA formed a band that was significantly lower than normal, indicting the bacterial DNA was in fact
more dense (heavier).

1) The bacteria were then returned to substrate (food) containing the most common form of nitrogen
(N14). The bacteria grew and divided. DNA was extracted from this first generation and centrifuged
through the salt gradient. The DNA formed a single band that was slightly higher when compared
with the parental generation (0). This essentially ruled our the 'conservative' model of DNA
replication which would have produced two bands one corresponding to heavier DNA containing only
N15 and one corresponding to lighter DNA containing only N14. These results showed that all the DNA
molecules now contained a combination of both 'heavy' DNA (N15) and 'light' DNA (N14). The question
that now remained was whether or not the original (heavier) DNA that contained the N15 had been
conserved as one continuous strand or was it now dispersed in sections across both strands?
2) The bacteria continued to grow and the second generation had their DNA extracted and
centrifuged. Two distinct bands were now visible. This is consistent with the semi conservative
model of DNA replication. The original bacteria had 'heavy' DNA that contained only N15. Once these
bacteria had divided the first generation all had DNA that consisted of one 'heavy' strand and one
'light' strand. Once these bacteria divided their of offspring would either inherit a 'light' strand (and
therefore have two 'light' strands) or a 'heavy' strand (and therefore have one 'heavy' and one 'light'
strand just like their parents). The higher band contained DNA from those bacteria that had
inherited a 'light' strand and the lower band contained DNA from those bacteria that had inherited a
'heavy' strand.

3) As the bacteria continued to grow and divide, DNA was extracted and centrifuged. Each time two
distinct bands were seen corresponding to those bacteria that either had / had not inherited a
'heavy strand'. However, because the newly synthesised strands were always made from 'light' DNA
the proportion of bacteria that would inherit a 'heavy' strand decreased with each generation. This is
why the higher band became more pronounced with each subsequent generation and the lower band
became less pronounced. This was strong evidence for the fact that each DNA strand is conserved in
it's entirety. If the 'heavy' DNA had been conserved in sections across both stands then all offspring
would inherit some 'heavy' DNA. In this case there would have been a single band that became less
dense (lighter) with each generation as the 'heavy' DNA continued to be divided up between
offspring. The appearance of two distinct bands in the same position after each successive
generation proved this wasn't the case.
The cell cycle https://youtu.be/lf9rcqifx34
Multicellular organisms rely on cellular division to https://youtu.be/gTZ_vj-HdzM
generate new cells needed for growth and repair.
The cell division cycle Can be divided into the
following phases.

Interphase: during this phase the cell prepares for

division by accumulating nutrients, duplicating cell
contents, copying DNA and growing in size. This phase
can be divided into two G (gap phases) and an S
(synthesis) phase.

Mitosis: during this phase the cell undergoes nuclear

division. The two copies of the DNA are separated to
opposite end of the cell.

Cytokinesis This is the process by which daughter cells

separate. The cell contents are divided and the two
new daughter cells are formed.

Some cells will stop dividing and enter a resting phase

(cell cycle arrest).
     
 https://youtu.be/3kpR5RSJ7SA
https://youtu.be/L0k-enzoeOM
https://youtu.be/IlV9hExXZnM

Mitosis
During mitosis the DNA is organised so that the two
copies can be separated. The purpose of mitosis is
to generate identical cells for growth & repair.
Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells (body cells).
Mitosis generates two daughter cells, that
are genetically identical. The Daughter cells
are diploid (have the normal number / two of each
chromosomes).
Mitosis can be divided into the following stages.
Factors that Affect Mitosis Nutrient availability    
Growth and repair           Nutrients are needed as a source of energy and as
After an injury many cells are replaced building blocks. Cell will need DNA nucleotides in
in order to repair the damage. The order to synthesise new DNA and the cell
rate of mitosis must increase in order organelles will have to be copied too. A lack of
to produce these new cells. Similarly necessary nutrients can restrict or stop mitosis.
the rate of mitosis also increases This is why people in areas of famine are often
during periods of growth, such as our smaller and shorter.
development in the womb, childhood
and puberty. In pants there is also
much higher rates of mitosis during
germination and growth.
Cell Type & Location
 Body tissues that are replaced frequently have a higher rate
of mitosis. For example bone marrow which is responsible for
blood cell production is an area in the body where rapid
mitosis occurs. Skin cells, hair follicles and the cells lining
our intestines (epithelial cells) all have high rates of mitosis
as these tissues constantly need to be replaced. In plants
growth occurs largely at the shoot and root tips. These cells
have much higher rates of mitosis than the rest of the plant.
Damaged tissues are not simply replaced by surrounding
cells. Special stem cells do this. Stem cells are
undifferentiated cells, this means that they have not fully
developed into a specific cell type and can divide to produce
different cell types. During growth or repair stem cells
undergo mitosis and cell division to produce more of
whatever cell type is required. Stem cells have special
mechanisms that allows them to divide many more times
than regular cells.

Enzyme Activity
DNA replication, mitosis and cell division are
controlled by an array of proteins and
enzymes. Therefore the factors that affect
enzymes can also affect mitosis. Some of the
key factors that affect enzyme activity
include:
• Temperature
• pH
• Substrate concentration (e.g. the
availability of nutrient building blocks)
• Enzyme Cofactors (some dietary vitamins
are essential for enzyme function)
Regulation
The cell cycle, including growth, DNA replication, mitosis
and cell division are all highly regulated processes that are
regulated by special genes within a cell. Mutations in
these genes can result in a loss of regulation and may
cause a larger number of these cells to grow. This causes
a lump known as a tumour
Patients undergoing chemotherapy often lose their hair,
feel nauseous and may need a bone-marrow transplant.
This is because chemotherapy drugs target cells with
higher mitosis / division rates such as tumour cells.
However, the side effect is that it also affects body cells
that normally have a higher rate of mitosis / division.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that generates cells https://youtu.be/qCLmR9-YY7o
with half the normal number of chromosomes for https://youtu.be/lmg_1Ro_YJY
sexual reproduction. Meiosis is plays an important https://youtu.be/4MRLf7Jcn7Y
role in generating genetic diversity in species that
reproduce sexually.
•Purpose: to make gametes (sex cells) such as sperm
& ovum (egg cells) in humans.
•Where: specialised germ cells found in sex organs
(testes/ovaries)
•Produces: 4 x haploid (n) daughter cells that are
genetically different
Prophase IChromosomes condense and become visible under a light microscope.
Homologous chromosomes can exchange segments in a process referred to as
recombination (crossing over). This contributes to genetic diversity as recombination
can result in chromosomes that carry unique combinations of alleles [see
recombination]. The nuclear membrane disintegrates and spindle fibres begin to form.
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes line up in pairs across the centre of the cell. The
arrangement of each pair (which is on the left vs right) is random and therefore
independent of the other homologous pairs. This is known as independent assortment
and also contributes to genetic variation as it means each of the resulting sex cells will
inherit unique combination of chromosomes and therefore alleles [see independent
assortment]. During metaphase the chromosomes attach to the spindle fibres
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart (this is known as disjunction). The cell
elongates (lengthens) in preparation for division down the centre.
Telophase I
Homologous chromosomes reach each end of the cell. The spindle fibres disappear and
a nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes at each end of the cell. The
chromosomes uncoil and the cell membrane begins to pinch off (in animals cells) and
the cell divides.
Prophase II
The nuclear envelope disintegrates again. Chromosomes condense (coil up tightly) and spindle fibres
form.
Metaphase II
Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres and line up across the centre of the cell.
Anaphase II
The Chromosomes which consist of two identical copies called sister chromatids divide. The sister
chromatids are pulled to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase II
The chromosomes uncoil and the spindle fibres disappear. The Nuclear membrane reforms and the
cells divide. Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.