SOIL AND SOIL

AGGREGATES,
CEMENT, AND CONCRETE
TECHNOLOGY
MENDOZA
BRANDIA
ESTRADA
SALVA
CUEVAS
BOGABONG
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
It describes the way the sand, silt and clay particles are clumped
together.
Organic matter ( decaying plants and animals)
Soil Organisms ( earthworms and bacteria)        influence soil structure
Important for plant growth
Good quality soils are friable (crumbly) and have fine aggregates.
Poor soil structure has coarse, very firm clods or no structure at all.
refers to the arrangement of soil separates into units called
AGGREGATES.
AGGREGATES

possesses solids and pore space.

Separated by planes of weakness and are

dominated by day particles.

Silt and fine sand particles may also be part

of an aggregate.

It acts like a larger silt or sand particle

depending upon its size.
 1. Wetting and drying
THE NATURAL
PROCESSES 2. Freezing and thawing
THAT AID IN
3. Microbial activity that aids in the decay of
FORMING organic matter
AGGREGATES
ARE: 4. Activity of roots and soil animals and

5. absorbed cations.
AGGREGATES ARE SHAPE SIZE STABILITY
DESCRIBED BY:
           TYPES DESCRIPTION

Granular Rounded surfaces

crumb Rounded surfaces but larger than granular

Sub-angular blocky Cube-like with flattened surfaces and rounded

corners

blocky Cube-like with flattened surfaces and sharp

corners

prismatic Rectangular with a long vertical dimension

and flattened top
TYPE DESCRIPTION
columnar Rectangular with a long vertical
dimension and rounded top
platy Rectangular with a long horizontal
dimension
Single grain No aggregation of course particles
when dry
structureless No aggregation of fine particles
when dry 
 GROUP OF SOIL PARTICLES
THAT BIND TO EACH OTHER
MORE STRONGLY THAN TO
WHAT ARE ADJACENT PARTICLES.
SOIL
AGGREGATES? THE SPACE BETWEEN THE
AGGREGATES PROVIDE PORE
SPACE FOR RETENTION AND
EXCHANGE OF AIR AND WATER
 Refers to the ability of soil
aggregates to resist
disruption when outside
forces ( water) applied.
WHAT IS
AGGREGATE
STABILITY?
Aggregate stability is not the
same as dry aggregate
stability, which is used for
wind erosion prediction .
The latter term is a size
evaluation.
WHY IS AGGREGATE
STABILITY
IMPORTANT?
AGGREGATION affects:
 Erosion ,
movement of water,
and plant root growth.
Aggregates that break down in water or fall apart when struck by raindrops
release individual soil particles that can seal the soil surface and clog pores.

Optimum conditions have a large range in pore size distribution.                         

        

   Includes: large pores between the aggregates and  smaller pores within the

aggregates
HOW IS AGGREGATE STABILITY MEASURED?
NUMEROUS METHODS -can be used in a field
Standard method of
MEASURE AGGREGATE office or in simple
Soil Survey Laboratory
STABILITY laboratory

- this
- an alternative
procedure involves
procedure described
repeated agitation of
here does not require
aggregates in distilled
weighing
water.
 -The measurements are
made on air-dry soil that has
passed through a sieve with
2 mm. Mesh and retained by
a sieve with a 1mm.mesh
-after a period of time, the
container is removed from
and its contents are allowed
to dry.
-It is placed in a small open
container with a fine screen
at the bottom.
-the content is then removed
and visually examined for the
breakdown from original
aggregate size.
- this container is placed in
distilled water.
- those materials that have
the least change from the
original aggregates have the
greatest aggregate stability
 The stability of
aggregates is affected by:
soil texture

WHAT
INFLUENCES
AGGREGATE
STABILITY?

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.

Predominant type of clay

WHAT
INFLUENCES
AGGREGATE
STABILITY?

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC.

 Extractable iron

WHAT
INFLUENCES
AGGREGATE
STABILITY?

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY.

 WHAT
INFLUENCES Extractable cations, the
AGGREGATE amount and type of
organic matter present,
STABILITY? and the type and size of
the microbial population

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND.

• Soils that have a high content of
organic matter have greater
aggregate stability.
• Additions of organic matter increase
aggregate stability, primarily after
decomposition begins and
microorganisms have produced
chemical breakdown products or
mycelia have formed.
• Soil microorganisms produce many
different kinds of organic
compounds, some of which help to
hold the aggregates together.
• The type and species of
microorganisms are important.
Fungal mycelial growth binds
soil particles together more
effectively than smaller organisms,
such as bacteria.
• Aggregate stability declines
rapidly in soil planted to a clean-
tilled crop. It increases while the
soil is in sod and crops, such as
alfalfa.

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.

SOIL AGGREGATE STABILITY
Is a measure of the ability of
soil aggregates to resist
degradation when exposed
to external forces such as:

      - water erosion
      - wind erosion
      - shrinking  and swelling
processes, and
      - tillage
    
                                        Thank you 
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
REPORTERS:
BOGABONG, MOHD KHALID
MENDOZA, ANGEL MAE
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

• Deals with study of properties of concrete and its practical applications.

• It addresses the properties of concrete needed in construction applications,
including strength and durability, and provides guidance on all aspects of
concrete from mix design to batching, mixing, transporting, placing,
consolidating, finishing, and curing.
• In a building construction, concrete is used for the construction of
foundations, columns, beams, slabs and other load bearing elements.
CONCRETE

• Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates

(sand) and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time.
• Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of
concrete.
COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

• Two phase: Paste phase and Aggregate phase

• Paste phase – Mixture of Portland cement and water
• Aggregate phase – Gravel, crushed stone, sand, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates. Occupy 70 – 80% of volume of concrete.
HOW DOES IT WORK?

• The cement paste coats the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates when mixed thoroughly
and binds them. Soon after mixing the components, hydration reaction starts which provides
strength and a rock solid concrete is obtained.
WATER
• The water causes the hardening of
concrete through a process called
hydration. Hydration is a chemical
reaction in which the major
compounds in cement form
chemical bonds with water
molecules and become hydrates or
hydration products.
• This is due to the adhesive
property of water that helps them
bind together.
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
• A process of selecting
ingredients for a concrete
mixture and deciding on their
proportions.
• When designing a mix, you
should always consider the
desired strength, durability,
and workability of the concrete
for the project in question.
DIFFERENT FACTORS IN CONCRETE MIX
DESIGN
• Compressive strength of concrete
• Workability of concrete
• Durability of concrete
• Maximum nominal size of aggregate
• Grading and type of aggregate
• Quality Control at site
STRENGTH, WORKABILITY, AND
DURABILITY
• Concrete compressive strength and durability is inversely proportional to the
water-cement ratIo. But In the situations when the high strength is not
necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital.
STRENGTH, WORKABILITY, AND
DURABILITY
• The compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in size of
aggregate. Smaller aggregate size offers greater surface area for bonding with
mortar mix that give higher strength.
• Aggregate size is inversely proportional to cement requirement for water-
cement ratio. This is because workability is directly proportional to size of
aggregate
GRADE OF CONCRETE

• Grade of concrete denotes its strength required for construction.

• For example, M30 grade signifies that compressive strength required for construction
is 30MPa. The first letter in grade “M” is the mix and 30 is the required strength in
Mpa.
• The strength is measured with concrete cube or cylinders by civil engineers at
construction site. Cube or cylinders are made during casting of structural member
and after hardening it is cured for 28 days. Then compressive strength test is
conducted to find the strength.
CEMENT : SAND : AGGREGATE
HOW TO MAKE
CONCRETE?
TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXES
• Nominal Mix
- It is used for normal construction works such as small residential
buildings.
- Most popular nominal mix are in the proportion of 1:2:4.
• Design Mix
- those for which mix proportions are finalized based on various
lab tests on cylinder or cube for its compressive strength. This
process is also called as mix design.
- A design mixed offers economy on use of ingredients.
METHODS USED FOR MIXING
• Hand Mixing
- each ingredients are placed on a flat surface and water is added
and mixed with hand tools
• Machine Mixing
- different types of machines are used
- the ingredients are added in required quantity to mix and
produce fresh concrete
HAND TOOLS
CONCRETE MIXING MACHINES
TYPES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
• Plain Concrete Construction (PCC)
- it is poured and casted without use of any reinforcement
- This is used when the structural member is subjected only to the
compressive forces and not bending.
• Reinforced Concrete Construction
- When a structural member is subjected to bending, reinforcements are
required to withstand tension forces structural member as it is very weak in
tension compared to compression.
- Generally, strength of concrete in tension is only 10% of its strength in
compression.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES

• residential concrete buildings • multi storey buildings

• industrial structures • skyscrapers
• dams • bridges
• roads • sidewalks
• tunnels • superhighways
 Panama Canal (Panama)
EXAMPLE
Hoover Dam (USA)

Roman Pantheon (Rome)

STEPS OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
• Selecting quantities of materials for selected mix proportion
• Mixing
• Checking of workability
• Transportation
• Pouring in formwork for casting
• Vibrating for proper compaction
• Removal of formwork after suitable time
• Curing member with suitable methods and required time
BENEFITS OF CONCRETE
• The lowest carbon footprint for a structure or pavement over its lifecycle
• unparalleled strength, durability, longevity and resilience
• maximized energy efficiency via thermal mass
• durability in any environment
• a building material that doesn’t burn, rust or rot
• safety and security
• versatility – it can be molded into any shape, colour or pattern imaginable
• no off-gas
• excellent vibration and sound insulating
• low maintenance costs
• 100 % recyclability, plus the materials needed to make concrete are abundant
in just about every locale on the planet
REFERENCES:

http://rediscoverconcrete.com/en/sustainability/a-better-building-material/the-b
enefits-of-concrete.html
• https://www.slideshare.net/mvm2594/concrete-technology-12587295
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/#components
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/factors-affecting-choice-concrete-mix-
design/7552/
CEMENT
PREPARED BY:
RAPHEN DAVE CUEVAS
ANA MARIE ESTRADA
WHAT IS CEMENT?

• Cement is a binder, a substance that sets

and hardens independently, and can bind
other materials together. 

• It used in construction is characterized

as hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CEMENT:

Advantages:
1. Cement is used as a binding material
2. Cement is easy to handle and apply
3. They are suitable to contact with potable water.

Disadvantages:
1. Cement are subjected to cracking
2. It is very difficult to provide idoneous curing conditions
3. Not ideal for situation when settlement is expected.
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT:

The relative quantities of each of these phases

Chemical Compound Percentage
affects:
• setting time Lime, Cao 60-66
• rate of strength development Silica, Sio2 17-25
• overall strength
Alumina,Al2O3 3-8
• durability
• color Iron Oxide, Fe2O3 0.5-6

Magnesia, MgO 0.5-4

Sulphur trioxide, SO3 1-2

Alkalis 0.5-1.3
PRODUCTION PROCESS:

Cement is typically made from limestone and clay or

shale. These raw materials are extracted from the
quarry crushed to a very fine powder and then
blended in the correct proportions.

There are two types of cement process,

1.    Dry process
2.     Wet process

Fig 1- Ball Mill In A Cement Plant

     The raw materials are wet ground in the ball mill by adding water, and form a slurry.
 
   In either event, wet or dry, the ground powder is then blended, using the “Chemist’s Secret Mixture”,
which can be a closely guarded “recipe”, and are then transported to the rotary kiln for heat processing.

·          In the rotary kiln, first the carbon dioxide is driven off of the calcium carbonates, then the raw
material is   fused at a temperature somewhere around 2,700 degrees F. The discharge from the kiln is
called clinker, as it  resembles small rocks or residue from a blast furnace.

.         The clinker is the cement in “lump” form. The particle size range for clinker is from about 2 inches
(1mm and  25mm across) to about 10 mesh. The clinker is then ground in a ball mill and shipped to users
as Portland Cement.

·         In its simplest form, the rotary kiln is a tube up to 200 metres long and perhaps 6 metres in
diameter, with a   long flame at one end. The raw feed enters the kiln at the cool end and gradually passes
down to the hot end, then falls out of the kiln and cools down
Fig2- Illustration of simple cement Kiln
Fig 3- The basic components of the cement production process.

After cooling, the clinker may be stored temporarily in a clinker store, or it may pass directly to the cement
mill. The cement mill grinds the clinker to a fine powder. A small amount of gypsum – a form of calcium
sulfate – is normally ground up with the clinker. The gypsum controls the setting properties of the cement
when water is added.
Fig4- Cement production process
Types of cement

Various types of cement are possible by blending different proportions of gypsum, clinker, and other
additives. Cements that are used for construction fall into two main categories based on cement properties,
hydraulic or non-hydraulic. In addition to the two main cement forms, there are several different forms of
hydraulic cement. Of the many varieties of hydraulic cement, the most commonly used cement today is
Portland cement.
The 5 types of cement are:

·         Type1 – OPC

·         Type2 – Moderate heat of hydration (PPC)
·         Type3 – rapid hardening cement
·         Type4 – Low heat cement
·         Type5 – Sulphate resisting cement.
 NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENT

• Non-hydraulic cement is cement which cannot harden while in contact with water, as opposed to hydraulic cement which
can.

• Non-hydraulic cements are created using materials such as non-hydraulic lime and gypsum plasters, and oxy chloride, which
has liquid properties.

• After non-hydraulic cement is utilized in construction, it must be kept dry in order to gain strength and hold the structure.

• When non-hydraulic cement is used in mortars, those mortars can set only by drying out, and therefore gain strength very
slowly.

• Due to the difficulties associated with waiting long periods for setting and drying, non-hydraulic cement is rarely utilized in
modern times.
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT

 Hydraulic cements are cements that have the ability to set and harden after being combined with water.
·         As a result of chemical reactions, after hardening hydraulic cement mixtures retain strength and stability even when in
contact with water.
·          Due to the fact that hydrates that are formed when hydraulic cement is initially in contact with water the new mixture
becomes essentially insoluble in water. That gives hydraulic cement a strength and stability that   makes it distinct from non-
hydraulic cement.
·         Hydraulic cement is made primarily from limestone, certain clay minerals, and gypsum, which are burned  together in
a high temperature process that drives off carbon dioxide and chemically combines the primary ingredients into new
compounds.
 PORTLAND CEMENT

  The main form of cement used in construction worldwide today is the hydraulic cement called Portland            
     cement.
·  Portland cement is a type of hydraulic cement made by heating a limestone and clay mixture to 1450 °C in a
kiln and pulverizing the materials. In a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is
liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other
materials that have been included in the mix.
·         The resulting hard substance, called ‘clinker’, is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a
powder to make ‘Ordinary Portland Cement’, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as
OPC).
·         It is a fine, grey or white powder that is made by grinding Portland cement clinker, a limited amount of
calcium sulfate which controls the set time, with other minor constituents.
·         The cement is used as the basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most non specialty grout.
HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

• High alumina cement is obtained by fusing or sintering a

mixture in suitable proportion of alumina and calcareous
material and grinding the resultant product to a fine powder.

• Raw materials are limestone and bauxite.

• About 20% of strength is achieved in one day.

QUICK SETTING CEMENT

• The setting time of ordinary cement is very less

if gypsum is not added at the clinkering stage.
Therefore when quick setting cement is required, the
gypsum is deliberately added in less quantity or not
added at all.

• This type of cement is useful in flowing water and

some typical grouting operations.
 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Chemical Properties
·         Chemical analysis
·         Compound composition
·         Chemical limits
Physical Properties
·         Fineness
·         Soundness
·         Consistency
·         Setting time
·         False set and flash set
·         Compressive strength
·         Heat of hydration
·         Loss on ignition
·         Density
·         Bulk density
·         Sulfate expansion
 TESTS FOR CEMENT

a) Fineness Test-
 The fineness of cement can be defined as the measure of size of particles of cement or in simple form
“Specific Surface of Cement”. This test is usually carried out using IS sieve no.9 or 90 microns.  
   
 b) Setting Time Test-
 Cement when mixed with water triggers a process which results in a hardened mass of mixture
wherein hardness gradually increases with time. There are two setting times for cement- Initial Setting
Time (IST) or Final Setting Time (FST).It is tested using Vicat’s Apparatus.

Eg. For Portland Cement IST is around 30 mins and FST is around 600 mins.