STATES OF MATTER

Advanced Secondary 1
State How the particles are arranged Diagram of particles

Gases have no fixed shape and volume. Gas particles:

• Are far apart, therefore gases can be compressed
GAS • Are randomly arranged
• Can move freely from place to place, in all directions.

Liquids take the shape of the container they occupy. Liquid

particles:
• Are close together, so liquids have a fixed volume and can
LIQUID only be compressed slightly
• Are arranged fairly randomly
• Have limited movement from place to place, in all
directions.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume. Solid particles:

• Are touching each other, so solids cannot be compressed
SOLID • Are usually in a regular arrangement
• Cannot change positions with each other – they can only
vibrate.
 THE GASEOUS
STATE
The idea that molecules in gases are in constant movement is called kinetic
theory of gases. This theory make certain assumptions:
• The gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
• The distance between the gas molecules is much greater than the
diameter of the molecules so the volume of the molecules is negligible
• There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the molecules
• All collisions between particles are elastic – this means no kinetic energy
is lost in collisions
• The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.

A theoretical gas that fits this description is called an Ideal Gas.

In reality, the gases we encounter don’t fit this descriptions exactly.
This gases are called Real gases.
 IDEAL GAS
LAWS
• The volume of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
pressures.
• The volume of a gas at constant pressure is proportional to the its temperature
measured in Kelvin.

VOLUME
VOLUME

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE (K)

 IDEAL GAS
LAWS
•  Boyle’s Law

• Charles’ Law
 IDEAL GAS
LAWS
•  Charles’ Law

If we combine these three laws;

R is gas constant
 Ideal Gas Equation
•For
  an ideal gas, we can combine the laws about how the volume of a gas depends on
temperature and pressure.
Putting all these together, gives us the general gas equation:

p = pressure in Pa (Pascal)
V = volume of gas in cubic meters (m3)
n = number of moles of gas
R = gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature in Kelvin (K)
•0.96
  g of oxygen gas is contained in a glass vessel of volume 7.0 x 10-3 m3 at a
temperature of 30 0C. What is the pressure of gas in the vessel?
LIMITATIONS OF THE IDEAL GAS LAWS

Gases do not always behave exactly as an ideal gas to behave.

This is because real gases do not always obey the kinetic theory in two
ways:
• There is not zero attraction between the molecules
• We cannot ignore the volume of the molecules themselves

These differences are especially noticeable at very high pressures and

very low temperatures.
Calculating relative molecular masses by
ideal gas equation

• 
•A  flask of volume 100 cm3 was found to contain 0.5599 g of gas X. The pressure and
the temperature in the flask, respectively; 4.92 atm and 27 0C. Calculate the
molecular mass of gas X and identify the gas X. (1 atm = 101325 Pa)

The gas is Nitrogen gas

 THE LIQUID
STATE
The kinetic of the liquid particles in melting process:
• the energy transferred to the solid makes the particles vibrate more
vigorously
• The force of attraction between the particles weaken
• The solid changes to a liquid when its temperature reach the melting
point of the liquid
The kinetic of the liquid particles in freezing process:
• The particles lose kinetic energy so they do not move around so
readily
• The particles experience increasing force of attraction
• Stop sliding past each other when the temperature is sufficiently
low; the liquid solidifies.
The kinetic of the liquid particles in vaporization process:
• The energy transferred to the liquid makes the particles move faster
• The forces of attraction between the particles weaken
• The particles with most energy are the first to escape from the forces holding
them together in the liquid
• The liquid evaporates – this happens at a temperature below the boiling point
• The forces weaken enough for all the particles to become completely free from
each other; they move fast and randomly and they spread out
• The liquids boils; this happens at the boiling point
Evaporation in closed vessel

The molecules is the vapor become closer together. Eventually the molecules with lower kinetic
energy will not be able to overcome the attractive forces of neighboring molecules. The vapor begins
to condense. Some molecules return to the liquid. Eventually, molecules return to the liquid at the
same rate molecules escape to the vapor. A position of equilibrium is reached.

At equilibrium the concentration (number of particles) of the molecules in the vapor remains
constant.

In this situation the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid is called Vapor
pressure.
The kinetic of the liquid particles in condensation process:
• The particles lose kinetic energy so the molecules move
around less quickly
• The particles experience increasing forces of attraction
• The particles move more slowly and become closer together
when the temperature is sufficiently low; the gas liquefies
THE SOLID STATE
Many ionic, metallic and covalent compounds are crystalline.

The regular structure of crystals is due to the regular packing of the

particles within the crystal. We call this regularly repeating
arrangement of ions, atoms or molecules a crystal lattice.
 IONIC LATTICES
Ionic lattices have a three-dimensional arrangement of alternating positive and
negative ions. The type of lattice formed depends on the relative sizes of the ions
present.
The ionic lattices for sodium chloride and magnesium oxide are cubic.
In sodium chloride, each sodium ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged
chloride ions. The chloride ions are much larger than the sodium ions.
Magnesium oxide has the same lattice structure as sodium chloride.
THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC
COMPOUNDS
• Hard and brittle (detail on TB pg. 78)
• High melting points and boiling points
The melting points and boiling points increase with the charge density
(size) on the ions. Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point than
sodium chloride.
• Many of the ionic compounds are soluble in water
• Ionic compounds only conduct electricity when molten or in solution
(detail on TB pg. 67)
 METALLIC LATTICES
Metallic lattice consists of ions surrounded by a sea of electrons. The ion are often
packed in hexagonal layers or in a cubic arrangement.

When a force is applied, the layers can slide over each other. This explains why
metals are malleable and ductile.
 GIANT MOLECULAR LATTICES
Carbon (graphite and diamond) and silicon oxide can be giant molecular
structures.

Graphite and diamond are from same element (carbon) but they have different
crystalline or molecular forms, that is called Allotropes
Graphite The properties of graphite are related
to its structure
• High melting and boiling points
• Softness: graphite is easily scratched.
This is due to the forces between the
layers of carbon atom weak.
• Good conductor of electricity.
Because the delocalized electrons
(mobile electrons) can move along
the layers.
Diamond The properties of diamond are related
to its structure
• High melting and boiling points
• Hardness: diamond cannot be
scratched easily because it is difficult
to break the strong covalent bonds.
• Does not conduct electricity or heat:
each of the four outer electrons on
every carbon atom is involved in
covalent bonding.
Carbon nanoparticles (other type of carbon
allotropes)
Graphite and diamond are not the only allotropes of carbon. In recent years,
substances called fullerenes and Graphene have been made.
The structure of fullerenes is based on rings of carbon atoms, as is the
structure of graphite.
The individual particles in fullerenes may have one of their dimensions
between 0.1 and 100 nanometers.
The types of fullerenes is divided into two substances:
Buckminsterfullerene and nanotubes

Graphene is the single layer of graphite

Buckminsterfulleren Buckminsterfullerene consists of 60
particles of carbon (C60)
e The properties of buckminsterfullerene
are related to its structure
• It has a relatively low sublimation point.
This is because there are weak van der
waal’s force between each
buckminsterfullerene molecule
• It is relatively soft because it does not
require much energy to overcome the
weak intermolecular forces
• It is a poor conductor of electricity
• It is slightly soluble in non-polar solvents
• It is more reactive compared with
graphite or diamond.
 Characteristic properties of
Nanotubes nanotubes:
• They have high electrical
conductivity along the long axis
of the cylinder
• They have very high tensile
strength. They can be up to 100
times stronger than steel of the
same thickness.
• They have very high melting
points
Fullerenes (buckminsterfullerene and nanotubes)
have a large of potential uses.
• Delivering drugs to specific places in the body
• Nanotubes are used in tiny electrical circuits as
“wires” and as electrodes in paper-thin batteries
• Incorporated into clothing and sports equipment
for added strength
• Treatment of certain types of cancer
 Graphene is a single layer of
Graphene graphite. Graphene has some of the
properties of graphite, but they are
more exaggerated.
• Graphene is the most chemically
reactive form of carbon. Single
sheets of graphene burn at very
low temperatures and are much
more reactive than graphite.
• Graphene is extremely strong for
its mass
• For a given amount of material,
graphene conducts electricity and
heat much better than graphite
Potential applications of graphene include use in tiny
electrical circuits and for tiny transistors,
touchscreens, solar cells, and other energy of
storage devices.