Boolean Algebra and Logic

Gates

BE CHEMICAL II/I, EEEG 204

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 Logical Operations
The three basic logical operations are:
• AND
• OR
• NOT
AND is denoted by a dot (·).
OR is denoted by a plus (+).
NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single
quote mark (') after, or (~) before the variable.

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 Notation Examples
Examples:
• Y  A  B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”

• z  x  y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”

• X  Ais read “X is equal to NOT A.”
Note: The statement:
1 + 1 = 2 (read “one plus one equals two”)
is not the same as
1 + 1 = 1 (read “1 or 1 equals 1”).
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 Operator Definitions
Operations are defined on the values "0" and "1" for
each operator:

AND OR NOT
0·0=0 0+0=0
01
0·1=0 0+1=1
1·0=0 1+0=1 10
1·1=1 1+1=1

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 Truth Tables
Tabular listing of the values of a function for al.l
possible combinations of values on its arguments
Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X ZX
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
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 Truth Tables – Cont’d
Used to evaluate any logic function
Consider F(X, Y, Z) = X Y + Y Z
X Y Z XY Y YZ F=XY+YZ
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
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 Logic Function Implementation
Switches in parallel => OR
Using Switches
• Inputs:
logic 1 is switch closed
logic 0 is switch open
Switches in series => AND
• Outputs:
logic 1 is light on
logic 0 is light off.
• NOT input: Normally-closed switch => NOT
C
logic 1 is switch open
logic 0 is switch closed
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Logic Function Implementation – cont’d

Example: Logic Using Switches

B C
A

Light is on (L = 1) for
L(A, B, C, D) = A (B C + D) = A B C + A
D
and off (L = 0), otherwise.
Useful model for relay and CMOS gate circuits, the
foundation of current digital logic circuits
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 Logic Gates
In the earliest computers, switches were opened and
closed by magnetic fields produced by energizing
coils in relays. The switches in turn opened and
closed the current paths.

Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current

paths electronically replaced relays.

Today, transistors are used as electronic

switches that open and close current paths.

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 Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior
Logic gates have special symbols:
X X
Z=
Y Z= Z= X+ Y
X
X·Y Y X
NOT gate
or
OR gate
And waveform behavior in time as follows:
AND gate inverter

X 0 0 1 1

Y 0 1 0 1

(AND) X·Y 0 0 0 1

(OR) X+ Y 0 1 1 1

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 Logic Diagrams and Expressions
Truth Table Logic Equation
XYZ
F  X  YZ
000
001
0
1
F  X Y Z
010 0 Logic Diagram
011 0 X
100 1
101 1 Y F
110 1 Z
111 1

Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe

the same function!
Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic diagrams are
not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.
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 Gate Delay
In actual physical gates, if an input changes that
causes the output to change, the output change does
not occur instantaneously.
The delay between an input change and the
output change is the gate delay denoted by tG:

1
Input 0
tG tG tG = 0.3 ns
1
Output
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)
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Some Properties of Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can have
more than two values
 A two-valued Boolean algebra is also know as Switching
Algebra. The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1.
 Switching circuits can be represented by this algebra.
 The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by
interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
 Sometimes, the dot symbol (AND operator) is not written
when the meaning is clear

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Dual of a Boolean Expression
Example: F = (A + C)· B + 0
dual F=(A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
Example: G = X · Y. + (W + Z)
dual G = (X+Y) · (W · Z) = (X+Y) ·
(W+Z)

Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C

dual H = (A+B) · (A+C) · (B+C)

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 Boolean Operator Precedence
The order of evaluation is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
Consequence: Parentheses appear around
OR expressions
Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
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Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 1
A+A·B=A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
A+A·
B Identity element: A · 1 = A
=A· 1 +A Distributive
·B 1+B=1
=A· ( 1 + Identity element
B)
=A· 1
=A

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Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 2

AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC Identity element
= AB + AC + (A + A) · BC Complement
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC Distributive
= AB + ABC + AC + ACB Commutative
= AB · 1 + ABC + AC · 1 + Identity element
ACB Distributive
= AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B) 1+X = 1
= AB . 1 + AC . 1 Identity element
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= AB + AC
 Useful Theorems
Minimization Minimization
XY+XY=Y (dual) (X+Y)(X+Y)
=Y
Absorption
X+XY=X Absorption
(dual) X · (X + Y)
=X
Simplification
X+XY=X Simplification
+Y (dual) X · (X + Y) =
X·Y
DeMorgan’s
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 Truth Table to Verify DeMorgan’s

X+Y=X·Y X·Y=X+
Y
X Y X·Y X+Y X Y X+Y X · Y X·Y X+Y
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Generalized DeMorgan’s Theorem:

X1 + X2 + … + Xn = X1 · X2 · … · Xn

X1 · X2 · … · Xn = X1 + X2 + … + Xn
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 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
A sum of minterms form for n variables can be
written down directly from a truth table.
• Implementation of this form is a two-level
network of gates such that:
• The first level consists of n-input AND
gates
• The second level is a single OR gate
This form often can be simplified so that the
corresponding circuit is simpler.
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 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
A Simplification Example:
F(A, B, C)   (1,4,5,6,7)
Writing the minterm expression:
F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC
Simplifying:
F = A B C + A (B C + B C + B C + B C)
F = A B C + A (B (C + C) + B (C + C)) F
= A B C + A (B + B)
F =ABC+ A
F=BC+A
Simplified F
contains 3 literals
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 AND/OR Two-Level Implementation
The two implementations for F are shown below

A
F
B

C
It is quite
apparent which
is simpler!

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