Formal Project Reports

EN-223 Research Project & Presentation

Text of report/Main Sections
• The pages of the text of the report
(beginning with the Introduction) are
numbered with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3
etc.).
• An effective report has clear objectives and
presents information in a logical sequence.
• An effective structure includes an
introduction, followed by design procedures
under appropriate headings, and ends with
a conclusion and possibly recommendations
5.1 Introduction
• The Outline and Introduction, may be the most difficult part of a technical
report.
• Writing Introduction is challenging work and can be written later after design
procedure, results and discussions.
• The body (i.e. design procedure, results, discussion) is much easier to write
because each section in the body only deals with one issue.
• For example, most literature survey results can be stated in the introduction,
where you must show that you examined the work of others before venturing
into the project.
• Your introduction must convince the reader that the work has not been done
by others.
5.1 Introduction
• The basic elements of the report body after introduction are:
• Procedure/Proposed Design or Algorithm: what was done, expressed in
sufficient detail so the work can be repeated by others
• Results: outcome of the tests conducted/feasibility of a new proposed design
in the procedure expressed in chronological order. But with no interpretation
of results.
• Discussion: analysis of results (including statistics);
• statement of why things happened the way they did and how these results compared
with the results of others (from your references);
• description of models/ equations/laws, and so forth that evolved from the work
5.1 Introduction
• These three sections apply to investigations, experiments, proposed
design/algorithm and feasibility studies.
• For example,
• If you are proposing a machine/design, the procedure section may be called
“Design Options/The name of designing technique.” Each option is reviewed in
that section.
• The results section may be termed “Final Design/Simulation Results/Results.”
• The discussion section can still be called “Discussion,” but it may contain costs or
advantages and disadvantages of the selected design. It uses the logic of:
• What was done
• What happened
• Explanation of what happened
5.1 Introduction Background

Section
Purpose(s)
Format

Essential
Components
of
Introduction Scope Objective(s)

Introduction

Proposed Problem
Method(s) Identification

Previous Problem
Work statement(s)
5.1 Introduction
• The Introduction gives the reader the necessary background
information. It can include:
• a survey of background information
• a description of purpose(s) and objective(s)
• problem Identification/problem statement(s)
• a review of previous work/research related to current project
• the proposed method(s)
• an indication of the scope and limitations of study
• a statement of format to tell what’s coming next
5.1 Introduction
Background
• The background information should include the following items:
• The problem addressed by the report
• Why is the problem important
• Why should the reader bother to read this
• Express information in chronological sequence
5.1 Introduction
Background Example
A novel hybrid state estimator for including synchronized phasor measurements
• Traditional State Estimation is to get the estimation of state variables according
to redundant measurements provided by SCADA, which is solved by weighted-
least-square (WLS) method. With the increasing use of synchronized phasor
measurement unit (PMU) in recent years, it gains great interests to improve SE
with phasor measurements due to their synchronized characteristic and high
data transmission speed [1–4].Only when there are enough PMUs
commissioned in power grids, which can assure the system linear observable
[5], the linear state estimator is applicable [5–6]. However it is hard to place so
many PMUs even after a considerable period. Therefore, research efforts have
been made to utilize both phasor measurements and traditional measurements
to develop SE and some promising results have been given.
• Reference: Bi, T. S., Qin, X. H., & Yang, Q. X. (2008). A novel hybrid state estimator for including synchronized phasor
measurements. Electric Power Systems Research, 78(8), 1343-1352.
5.1 Introduction
Existing solutions
• Write about Existing solutions and their drawbacks from following
perspectives:
• viewpoint defined in introduction
• goals defined in introduction.
• Following are elements of this section:
a) A brief classification of the best relevant solutions from the open literature.
b) Short description of each relevant solution.
c) A detailed criticism of each presented solution, especially in the domains in
which the proposed solution is expected to be better.
5.1 Introduction
Scope
• A writer needs to decide what will and will not be included in a
document.
• Content of the scope statement is determined by the objective of the
work.
• Example:
The laboratory fretting corrosion tests were conducted on a variety of
surfaces that were candidates as materials of construction for metal-
forming tools.
In the following example on the subject of fretting corrosion, the report
is not going to cover all instances where fretting can occur.
5.1 Introduction
Scope
• Stating the scope of the work and the scope of document or report or
project essentially tells the reader what is coming.
• In fact, many times the scope statement can be blended with the
purpose statement.
• Avoid confusing the scope statement with the statement of purpose and the
objective of the work.
• If there is likelihood of reader misinterpretation, delete the scope.
5.1 Introduction
Purpose and Objective
• The reason for a document/project must be conveyed in terms of
purpose and objective:
• Purpose(s)/Intention(s)/Reason(s)
• Objective(s)/Goal(s)/Deliverable(s)
• These two essential elements are required in the introduction of any
formal or informal report.
• There may be multiple purposes and objectives, but do not belabour
these points. Be concise and direct.
5.1 Introduction
Purpose and Objective
• For example, the purpose of the fretting corrosion document is as
follows:
• Purpose
This paper summarizes the results and conclusions of the laboratory test
program with recommendation for manufacturer.
• Usually, the purpose statement flows into the objective
5.1 Introduction
Statement of Format
• The introduction for a report should clearly describe its format or the
overall organization and sequence of its major sections.
• If you have five sections in a report, state what is in these five sections
in their order of appearance within the report.
5.1 Introduction
Statement of Format (Example)
• The paper is organized as follows. Section II provides a general
discussion on PMU data quality. Section III discusses the concepts of
observability and redundancy in the context of phasor-only state
estimation. Section IV contains the least-squares estimation algorithm
of the PSE, using augmented states to improve data consistency.
Section V shows the PSE results applied to the Central NY system for
several sets of measured PMU data, illustrating the fidelity of the
PMU data and the interface flows.
5.1 Introduction
Summary
• Write to the reader with the least technical background, but do not state
that you are writing “down.”
• Put in enough history, but do not sacrifice concision.
• Cite references when appropriate.
• An introduction should be written so it can stand by itself.
• State the scope of your work in the introduction.
• The purpose of an research report is simply to present its results, conclusion
and make recommendations. It is adequate to state this.
• The objective of a study is the same as the goal of the work. It is the final
outcome and value of the work.
5.1 Introduction
Summary (Contd.)
• The objective of a report may be different than the objective of the study. If it is, state
this.
• The purpose of the report may be different from the purpose of the study. If it is, state it.
• Choose a title very carefully. It is the ultimate abstract of the report.
• Decide on readership before writing anything.
• Informal reports need background, purpose, and objective. Sometimes these can be put
in one sentence.
• Always tell the reader what is coming in the report. State the format at the end of the
introduction.
• The introduction and conclusions/recommendations may be the only part of a report
that is read by managers. Write with this in mind.
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• Few important aspects of main section:
• The proposed solution
• Details
• Axioms, conditions, and assumptions
• Mathematical analysis
• Simulation analysis
• Implementation analysis
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• The proposed solution and its essence
• Why is it supposed to be better compared to the best solution from the open
literature;
• Elements of this section are:
a) Philosophical essence/theory of the proposed solution.
b) Why the proposed solution is without drawbacks of existing solution(s).
c) What is the best methodology to prove the superiority of the proposed
solution, and under what conditions that holds.
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• Details
• This section should contain details of the best one among the existing
approaches and of the proposed solution.
• The relevant details should be grouped into categories. For example:
a) Hardware details.
b) System software details
c) Application software details
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• Axioms, conditions, and assumptions of the analysis to follow:
a) Axioms refer to axiomatic standpoints.
b) Conditions refer to realistic specifiers of the environment.
c) Assumptions refer to simplifications that make the analysis easier, without
jeopardizing on the quality of the final result.
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• Mathematical analysis:
a) Axioms, conditions, and assumptions are described mathematically.
b) Closed or open form formula are derived for the major performance
measures.
c) Closed or open form formula are derived for the major complexity measures.
• Simulation analysis to show performance:
a) Simulator, logical structure and user interface are described.
b) Simulation experiments are described.
c) Simulation results are expressed.
5.2 Writing the Main Body
• Implementation analysis to show complexity:
a) Implementation strategy is discussed for the chosen technology.
b) Implementation details and complexity are presented.
c) If a prototype is implemented, show some characteristic measurement. If a
prototype is not implemented, give some implementation guidelines.
5.2.1 Writing the Main Body
• If the project is “Design Project” then few aspects should be included:
• Design Constraints and Standards
• Design description
• Implementation
5.2.1 Writing the Main Body
Design Constraints and Standards
• Constraints are restrictions on the project or design and must be
identified during the early stages of the project.
• Examples:
• Time constraint: must be completed on a certain time
• Cost constraint: must be completed with a specific budget
• Technical constraints: limits of technology or available technology
• International/national standards related to the design must also be
identified
• The designed system should also be evaluated in terms of compliance
with the constraints and standards in the ‘Results and Evaluation’ Section
5.2.1 Writing the Main Body
Design Description
• The design description part will be the longest and most important
part in the body of your report
• Use subsections to guide the reader through this section as it will be
long and complex
• Identify possible solutions and analyze them
• Start with a block diagram that shows the major functions or layout
of the selected solution
• Describe how the design is used.
5.2.1 Writing the Main Body
Implementation
• Implementation – The process of converting the design into
something real
• Give details on how each block in your design has been implemented
• Justify the choice of components, software tools, communication protocols,
etc.
• Do not attempt to describe all the code in the system, and do not include
large pieces of code in this section
• Make use of pseudo codes and flowcharts
• Describe any problems that may have arisen during implementation and how
you dealt with them
5.2.2 Writing the Main Body
Writing a Procedure
• This section of a report body could be called “Investigation,”
“Laboratory Tests,” “Field Tests,” “Design Concepts,” and so forth, as
long as it contains sufficient detail that what was done can be repeated
by others.
• This is the requirement and the key attribute of this part of a report.
• There are two main reasons for details that allow the repeatability of a
procedure.
• First, if you need to repeat the tests or implement the proposed algorithm in the
future, you will have the necessary information.
• Second, if your work is being published, others may want to repeat it to verify
that your model, equation, and so forth are correct.
5.2.2 Writing the Main Body
Writing a Procedure
• Example: KGB Recipe for Cabbage Soup
1. Buy a big head of cabbage.
2. Cut in half.
3. Cut the halves in half (you now have quadrants of a sphere).
4. Boil the quarter heads in a large pot for 15 minutes at boil in 2 quarts of water
which contains 3 tablespoons of salt.
5. Let the pot cool to hand warm, and mash the cabbage with a potato masher
until it is disbursed in the water (the quarters are not recognizable).
6. Add the following to the pot:
• 1 tablespoon paprika
• 1 tablespoon garlic salt
• 3 tablespoons olive oil
• 4 tablespoons vinegar
• 1 beef bouillon cube
7. Reheat the pot to 150 to 170 °F and maintain there for 7 hours.
8. Serve in shallow bowl and decorate with parsley (serves two people).
5.2.2 Writing the Main Body
Writing a Procedure
• Most people could repeat this recipe, and it demonstrates what kind
of information is needed for reproducibility.
• It details every step, gives specific sizes and quantities, and states
conditions (temperature and times).
• The imperative mood (where sentences start with verbs) is usually
reserved for writing instructions or operating manuals like in the
preceding example of a recipe.
5.2.2 Writing the Main Body
Writing a Procedure
• It is also appropriate to include references in a procedure, if you are
reproducing a test developed by others.
• However, do not just replace the discussion of procedures by referring
to procedures published elsewhere.
• Inadequate Procedure
The test rig used in these experiments was previously described [7],
and we modified it with a proximity sensor for these experiments.
You are asking your reader to go to the library and get a copy of
reference seven so that he or she can find out what kind of test rig you
used.
5.2.2 Writing the Main Body
Writing a Procedure
• Finally, check the procedure for omissions.
• Scan it and see if the work could be repeated with the data
presented.
• As in all aspects of technical writing, a review by a peer or trusted
person will go a long way in preventing procedure omissions.
5.2.3 Writing the Main Body
Algorithm & Flowchart
• Algorithm and flowchart are two types of tools to explain the process.
• Algorithm:
• To write a logical step-by-step method to solve the problem is called
algorithm, in other words, an algorithm is a procedure for solving problems. 
• An algorithm includes calculations, reasoning and data processing
• Flowchart:
• A flowchart is the graphical representation of an algorithm with the help of
different symbols, shapes and arrows in order to demonstrate a process or a
program
5.2.3 Writing the Main Body
Algorithm & Flowchart
5.2.3 Writing the Main Body
RULES
• Test/design procedures must be detailed enough so that you or
others can repeat the test in the future.
• Always consider using a figures, block diagrams when describing
complicated interrelationships.
• Use flow charts for algorithms.
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results
• Results are the outcome of what happened in each part of a study.
• If you measured the power flow of 14 bus system, show the data in a table
or, preferably, in a graph or a bar chart.
• Tables of numbers are not always easy to interpret whereas a graph or
bar chart can provide a visual comparison of the test results.
• Results section should focus on just that: RESULTS.
• Present the test data and outcomes with good illustrations.
• State what the results show in a concise manner.
• In the discussion section, explain why things happened the way they did.
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results
• There may be three, five, or more report subheadings under each
major head.
• For example, a very big project may have involved tests at room
temperature, 200 °C, and 400 °C.
• These may become subheads in the procedure results and discussion.
• This is proper, and this approach may apply to any section of the
report body.
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results
• If a report concerns a design project, the section on results may
contain a description of a device or circuit schematics that convey
the design to the reader.
• Make the sections chronological and logical.
• Wherever possible, use graphs for presenting results. Graphs were
invented for this purpose.
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results
• What was found or seen? Decide on a logical order for presentation
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results – Figures and Tables
• Figures and tables should be
• high resolution
• neat, legible labels
• simple
• clearly formatted
• indicate error
• detailed captions
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results – Tables
• The following are essential guideline in constructing tables
• give the table a clear and concise title, which immediately tells the reader its
contents
• the heading should state what the table exhibits arrange the data in columns
to make them easily understood
• make column headings short
• Put analyzed and summarized data
• Rows should be numbered sequentially
• a table should be self-explanatory
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results - Charts
• In scientific writing, the most common types of illustrations are Charts
• line graph to demonstrate relationships among data or dynamic comparison
• bar graph to compare quantities
• pie chart to show proportions of a whole
• photographs for accurate representations
• flowchart to show a complicated process or system
5.2.4 Writing the Main Body
Writing Results
• In summary, the results section presents test data along with any illustrations
that help readers interpret the results.
• You should also state what the data show in words,
• But explain/analyze the results in the discussion section of your report.
• Present the results that have a bearing on the question you are examining, but
do not interpret them here unless Results and Discussions is combined section.
• Exclude irrelevant findings, but never omit valid results that appear to
contradict your hypothesis.
• Suppressing such data is unethical, but when presenting them you may explain
why you feel they are anomalous.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• Results section describes what happened
• Discussion section explains why it happened.
• In discussion,
• Explain the results to the reader and present closing arguments.
• Explain, Why you think the results happened as they did.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• Note that the use of a personal pronoun (“Our explanation”) may be
appropriate here, as the discussion section may be based on the
opinion or perspective of the author(s).
• In fact, it may improve credibility, as the author is not proclaiming
opinion as a proven fact.
• Critical readers appreciate this as a good indication of an objective
tone.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• Sometimes, statistics or math models are applied to the test results
in the discussion section.
• If the results were graphed and this produced an exponential curve,
it may be appropriate to have the computer-generated curve fitting.
• You are also encouraged to compare your results with the work of
others.
• Go back to the references in the introduction and relate them to your
results and interpretations.
• Comparison to references helps to substantiate claims.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• If your investigation results are not what you anticipated, the
discussion section is the place to explain why your investigation did
not work out.
• Avoid introducing new information in this section.
• You could report the results of a simple experiment conducted to
explain a part of the results, but try to keep all the results in the
results section.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• As with all the sections of the body, the discussion should be tailored to
the situation. Sometimes it can be omitted.
• If you are writing a formal report on extensive tests on blind samples, you
cannot explain the results.
• This happens frequently in testing laboratories. A client may send thirty film
samples for friction testing. He or she states the tests to be run but does not
identify the samples in a way that can contribute to a test understanding.
• The samples come identified as lot A, B, and C. They are tested, and the data are
graphed as lot A B C. It is appropriate to simply present the results and conclusions.
• The conclusion will be something like: “Lot A has higher frontside-to-
backside friction than lot C and D, and lot D has the highest variability.”
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• It is appropriate to omit the discussion in blind studies or service
work.
• It is not possible to comment on why lot A is different from the other
lots because nothing is known about their manufacture.
• On the other extreme, you may conduct only a few tests, but the
results are so complicated that it takes much excessively lengthy
writing to produce a plausible explanation.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Writing the Discussion Section
• In summary, the discussion can be difficult, easy, or omitted,
depending on the situation.
• It is normally the appropriate section to explain results, compare
your results with those of others, and convince readers that your
results are accurate, usable, and have value.
• If your project was a failure, say so and explain why here.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Summary
• If you use standard tests in a study, reference them by number in the procedure
section but still describe them.
• Make the procedure repeatable; ask a coworker or general acquaintance if they
could repeat this test. Find out if you omitted key details.
• The body must include procedure, results, and discussion.
• A result is not a conclusion. It is a statement of the outcome of a test, study,
design, or experiment.
• Never mix procedure with results or results with discussion.
• List all the parameters that could affect the results of your work.
• Check that you state test conditions for all these parameters in your procedure.
5.2.5 Writing the Main Body
Summary
• The discussion is the place to compare your results with the work of
others.
• Results usually require graphics to assist the reader.
• Try to avoid the presentation of data in tabular form only.
• In some cases, readers appreciate data presented in both tabular and
graphical form.
• Keep the procedure and results sections free of opinions. These
belong in the discussion.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• The conclusion(s) of a report must be related to, and resulting from, the
material which appears in the report.
• The content of the Conclusion will be linked to the Introduction.
• The Conclusion places findings in perspective without introducing any
new material, and it may include:
• a clear and concise summary of the main points
• the context and significance of the information
• a reference to the original aim(s)/purpose(s) of the report
• the application(s) of the results
• the limitations and advantages of the findings
• the writer’s judgment/evaluation
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• The end of a formal report requires special consideration, because in many
cases it is more important than other parts of the report.
• As mentioned earlier,
• busy executives often read only the abstract
• some others read only the introduction and conclusions
• some still others read only the title and conclusions.
• They dig out the old reports and immediately go to the conclusions to recall
what happened.
• Conclusion is:
• a) Summary of what was done and to what extent are the initial goals achieved.
• b) To whom is that of benefit.
• c) Newly open problem for further research.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• A conclusion is a judgment based on results of a body of work.
• It is the final outcome of,
• the investigation
• the results obtained in the investigation
• the analysis of results
• the comparison of the results with the work of others.
• It is important to not present a result as a conclusion.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• For example,
• If a survey conducted on preference between the colors red and gray
yields a result that 75 out of 100 prefer red and 25 out of 100 prefer
gray, this is the result of the study, and it is put in the results section.
• The analysis and discussion section explains why you think the color
red had the higher percentage in the preference survey.
• A conclusion from the survey simply could be that most people prefer
red over gray.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• Results are tabulations of facts.
• Conclusions require inference by the person preparing the report.
• They prepare the reader for the upcoming recommendations.
• Do not introduce any new material in this section.
• If there is more than one conclusion, it is preferable to enumerate the
conclusions in an indented list.
• It is preferred that conclusions be one-sentence statements.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• It is recommended that conclusions be numbered and presented with
only a sentence or two introduction.
• For example,
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• An example of a poor conclusion is shown below:
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• This is paraphrased from a current report, and it is an example of
mixing results and discussion and calling it conclusions.
• You can tell that it is not an appropriate conclusion simply by
observation.
• The bulleted statements are almost paragraphs.
• Conclusions should be concise statements.
• The last bullet statement in particular directs the reader to plots in the results
section.
• This is discussion, as is most of what was written.
• The author also italicized some terms. This is inappropriate, because it is not
stated why these terms are italicized.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• Conclusions should be like first principles.
• Many facts are scrutinized and distilled into a statement that is
inclusive.
• The individual facts are results, and the interpretation of the facts is
done in the discussion.
• The conclusion is for numbered or bulleted statements only. Never
present new information or data or refer to graphs or tables in the
conclusion.
5.3 Formal Reports: Closure
Conclusion
• The above example is converted into an acceptable conclusion as
follows: