Lifting Equipment Engineers

Association

Part 1 Entry Examination

Course
Mechanics
 Mechanics-Simple Machines

• A machine can be defined as ‘a piece of equipment for overcoming a force

applied at one point by means of a force applied at another point’

• Simple Machines are levers, spanners etc.

 Simple Machines
Pulley Block Arrangements

• One of the most simplest and common lifting machines.

Basically a couple of pulleys mounted freely in pulley blocks. A piece of rope is
passed over each pulley in turn. One end fastened either to the top or bottom pulley
depending on how many pulleys there are. Effort applied to free end load attached to
the pulley block.

Efficiency

In a simple pulley around 5% - 8% of

the force is accounted for by Friction
in the sheave. So the more sheaves
used the greater the loss and the
lower the Efficiency because friction
is cumulative.
Chain
 Chain for Lifting Purposes

• Chains are made from alloy steel these days. It has the same tensile strength as good
wrought iron. However it offers improved methods of manufacture. Chain making is
entirely automated now. One machine can usually complete the whole process.

• Grade M = metric equivalent of grade 40

• Grade S = metric grade almost equivalent to grade 60 (actually 63)
• Grade T = metric equivalent to grade 80

Calibrated Chain Long Link

Grade 8
 Fine Tolerance Chain

Fine tolerance chain, (calibrated chain as it was previously known), is chain

which has been manufactured to precise dimensions for use as load chain in
lifting appliances.

As such it is outside of the scope of this course, however it is important that

we know a little about it.

The pitch of the chain is important as it has to mate with other, moving,
components.

It is less ductile than the chain used for chain slings and has a harder skin to
resist wear.

As it is unsuitable for use as sling chain, we must be able to identify it in case

we come across slings that incorrectly have been made using it.
 Medium Tolerance Chain
Medium tolerance chain, intended for sling manufacture, needs to be more
ductile to withstand shock loading, however, in use it is not subject to wear
and can therefore have a softer skin.

As it does not mate with other, moving, parts it does not need to have
such a precise pitch. When chain is produced by machine the links are
marginally misshapen, the sides having a slight curve.

When the manufacturer ‘calibrates’ it by the application of a force, the links

bed down on each other and the sides of the link straighten.

As a result the chain extends by a marginal amount. In the case of load

chains it is important that the links are of precise size and form so that
they engage correctly in the pocketed load wheels of the appliance.

This is achieved by manufacturing the chain to a calculated undersize.

The finished chain is then subjected to an increased force, which pulls it to

the required even shape, size and pitch.
 Chain Finishes
Various finishing treatments are given to the chain to increase its wear
resistance, eg case hardening.

The loss of some ductility due to the manufacturing and finishing processes is
unimportant for this type of application.

However these features are undesirable in a sling chain where it is less likely to
wear.

Sling chain is more liable to be shock loaded, so good ductility is essential.

 Chain Finishes
Fine tolerance chain may be recognised in two ways.

1. Bright Finish
2. Grade Mark

• The calibrating process has the effect of removing all of the residual scale
from the heat treatment process and many of the finish treatments include
corrosion resistant finishes.

• Fine tolerance chains to BS EN 818 use the letters ‘T’, ‘DAT’ and ‘DT’ to
indicate the type of treatment given to the chain and its intended application.

• Should a sling be found to use chain of these grades it should be removed

from service immediately. Slight problem here, which may apply to some older
chain slings that can still be found in use. Slings made in the UK between
1981 and 1997 may show the letter ‘T’ as a grade mark.
Grade of Chain WLL in terms of d2 (t) Proof load in terms of d2 Minimum breaking load
(t) in terms of d2 (t)

M 2
d
2 d d
2

64 32 16

S
2
2 d
2 d
d 10
40 20

T
2
d
2 d d
2

32 16 8
Components
 Components
• Links, rings, hooks and similar components that are used in the assembly of general
purpose slings and can be found fitted to lifting machines.
• The fittings we are concerned with here are intended for assembly and fitting to chain,
wire rope and textile materials.
Clevis end hooks - grab and slip hooks with clevis end connections permit
rapid attachment and removal from chain. Cotter locked pins are easily
removed from the hook.
Coupling Component Assembly
Shackles
 Shackle Facts

Three common types, Dee, Bow and Grab

Usually drop forged identifiable by the flash line, however a shackle can be manufactured by
bending and forging.

Heat treated after forging, prior to machining and finishing and they are hardened and tempered

Dee shackle used for joining two items in a straight line.

Bow shackle designed to enable three or more to be joined

Grab shackle designed to fit through a hole/channel without catching the sides.

The pin is of a larger diameter than the body to ensure the body and pin are the
same strength

Two types of shackle pin, screw pin and bolt, nut and cotter pin

Marked with WLL in tonnes, grade mark, Manufactures name, symbol or

code and traceability code.
Types of Shackle
Shackle Inspection Points
Wire Rope Construction
 Wire Rope Construction

• Wire has three basic components: the wires, strands and core.

• The core may be either fibre (FC) such as sisal, manila or jute, or an Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC)

• Two ways a rope can be laid up, Cross Lay and Equal Lay

• Most common wire rope for sling manufacture is 6x19

• Three basic methods of laying up a strand:-

• Seale 9 wires laid over a king wire, 9 wires laid in the valleys.

• Filler 6 wires laid around king wire, 6 smaller wires laid in the
valleys.12 wires then laid in valleys to form outer layer.

• Warrington 6 wires laid around the king wire, then 6 wires of the same size laid in the valleys, a
similar number of wires are laid along the crowns of the inner wires.
Wire Rope Terminations
 Wire Rope Slings

Grommets or Endless Slings These can be ferrule secured or hand spliced

Hand Spliced endless slings  These are very time consuming to make, so can be
expensive compared to ferrule secured.

Ferrule Secured Eye can be formed two ways, either the turn back loop or the
Flemish eye method.

FERRULE SECURED
SOFT EYE
Hand Splice The eye or loop end preparation is formed using the Tapered
Eye Hand Splice. No metal sleeve required to secure the eye.

HAND SPLICE

Eye with Thimble A thimble is fitted to protect the rope from damage. Also
helps keep its shape. Must be clearance between end of thimble and ferrule
after being pressed so that it cannot roll or rotate out of the eye.
THIMBLE EYE
Construction of a Flemish Eye

Flemish Eye Splice

In the standard Flemish eye mechanical splice, rope is

separated into two parts - 3 adjacent strands, and 3
adjacent strands and core. These two parts are then re-
laid back in opposite directions to form an eye, and ends
are secured with a pressed metal sleeve.
Chain Slings
 Chain Slings

ALLOY GRADE

Chain slings provide excellent performance in harsh

environments. When using chain for overhead lifting, an alloy
grade, either grade 80 or 100, is recommended. Both are
manufactured from special analysis alloy steel and engineered
for a superior combination of strength and durability. Other
grade chain and components can be appropriate for specific
applications with unusual requirements. 

Coupling Component Assembly

Textile Slings
 Textile Slings
• Manufactured from three man-made fibres:- Polyamide (Nylon),
Polyester and Polypropylene. Fibre rope slings can also be
produced from Manila, Sisal and Hemp, these are natural fibres.

• Slings have colour coded labels to enable correct identification as

follows:-
• Polyamide - Green label
• Polyester - Blue label
• Polypropylene - Brown label
• Natural fibres - White label
 Textile Slings
• During manufacturing stage man made fibres intended for use in sling manufacture are
subject to a process known as stabilising. This does not prevent solar degradation but does
slow it down.

• Mildew grows on the fibres and lives off the cellulose thus weakening it.

Resistance to Chemicals

• Polyamide is immune to alkalis, but attacked by acids.

• Polyester is resistant to acids but damaged by alkalis.

• Polypropylene is little affected by acids or alkalis but are damaged by solvents, tar &
paints etc.

Effects of Wetting

• Wetting affects natural fibres by a small loss of strength, increases weight, speeds up
rotting and if not dried and handled carefully will be attacked by mildew.

• Water affects man-made fibres as such, Polyamide looses about 10% strength, Polyester
unaffected and Polypropylene increases in strength and will float.

• Polyamide can stretch by up to 40% but Polyester by approximately 5%