1.

Introduction: aim
• To introduce the essential physical science components that are
the foundation of everyday engineering aerodynamics work.

• A comparison of solids, liquids & gases.

• To focus primarily on systems containing gases & air in particular.

• A description of the principal properties of pressure, density &

temperature.

• To Describe & Summarise the Gas Laws.

• To employ a mix of physics, thermodynamics & fluid mechanics.

› Introduction to the Conservation Laws - thermodynamics &

mechanics of fluids.
 1. Introduction: aim
› Define heat transfer, work, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy

› Non steady Flow & Steady Flow energy equations.

› Bernoulli’s Equation & Static Pressure Coefficient.

› Further Thermodynamic properties of importance to aerodynamic

work.

• An introduction to working with 1 dimensional representations of

frictionless flow with practical outcomes.

• An introduction to the compressibility of gases & derivation of the

speed of sound.

• An introduction to viscosity & viscous flow effects at the surface

of a body.
1. Introduction: properties of air
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

Equation of state: ( Outcome of 4 Gas

Laws)
• Boyles’ law of gases
• Charles’ law of gases
• Dalton's law of partial pressure
• Avogadro's law of gases
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

• Boyles’ law, for a gas at constant

temperature:

Volume is inversely proportional to the

Pressure, and vice versa

• Charles’ law, for a gas at constant

pressure:

Volume is proportional to the absolute

Temperature
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

• Dalton's law of partial pressure:

A container holding a mixture of gas

species, has an overall pressure equal to
the sum of the partial pressure of each
component:

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . + Pn
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

• Avogadro’s Law states:

Two given sample of an ideal gas (i.e. oxygen and hydrogen) at

the same temperature, pressure and volume contain the same
number of molecules.

Volume of gas over the amount of substance is constant (n is

mole of gas):
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

• Ideal gas equation is defined as: The volume (V) occupied by n

moles of any gas has a pressure (p) at temperature (T) as :

(R0 is universal gas constant and is equal to 8.314 J.K−1· mol−1)

p V = n R0 T
 2. Fundamental equations
2.1. equation of state

The Perfect (or Ideal) Gas Law:

• Bringing together the preceding laws, the relationship between the

above variables for a gas is as follows:
p V = n R0 T

• Aerospace work normally uses the Specific gas constant, R, defined as

R = R0 /M where M is the molecular weight of the gas, and nM=m, This
gives the engineering version of the perfect gas law:
p V = m R T and Air has a mean value of M = 28.96, to give R = 0.2871
kJ/kg K

• Engineering thermodynamics work normally uses specific volume, v =

V/m, thus p v = R T

• Aerodynamics work normally uses density, ρ = m/V, so the form in

aerodynamics work is:
p=ρRT
 2. Fundamental equations
2.2. Laws of Conservation/ conservation of mass

2.2. Conservation of mass:

Mass is conserved - it cannot be created or destroyed
 2. Fundamental equations
2.2. Laws of Conservation

2.3. Conservation of momentum: (Outcome of Newton laws of

motion)
Change of momentum is proportional to the resultant force

Newton’s Laws of motion:

First law: A body continues at rest or in uniform motion,
unless acted upon by an external force. (Also known as the law
of inertia)
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in
the same direction as the force.
where momentum = product of mass & velocity & is a vector
quantity.
Third law: For every action, there is an equal & opposite
reaction.
                                         
2. Fundamental equations
2.3. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of momentum: forms of equation:

1. Compressible viscous flow: Navier-Stokes Equations

2. Incompressible inviscid flow, partial differential equation: Euler equation

S is streamline direction

3. For steady flow (time independent) incompressible inviscid flow:

 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Energy

2.4. Conservation of Energy (thermodynamic laws):

• Energy is conserved - it cannot be created or destroyed but can
change from one form to another (eg. work is another form of energy).
 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Energy

2.4. Conservation of Energy (thermodynamic laws):

• Zeroth Law:
Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

• First Law:
The quantity of energy supplied to any isolated system in the
form of heat transferred, is equal to the work done by the
system plus the change in internal energy of the system.
Mathematically gives the ‘Non Flow Energy Equation’, Q – W =
ΔE
 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Energy

2.4. Conservation of Energy (thermodynamic laws):

* Second Law:
It is impossible to construct a system which will operate in a cycle,
extract heat from a reservoir and do an equivalent amount of work on
the surroundings. (heat is not equal to work!)
The 2nd Law is also the Law of Entropy, i.e. for any natural process,
the entropy of the universe increases

* Third Law:
By no finite series of processes is the absolute zero state attainable.
 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Energy: form of equation

1. Steady flow energy equation:

Where h is specific enthalpy:

v specific volume, e specific internal energy

2. For a fluid in motion, if no work or heat is transferred into or out

of the system, then the steady flow energy equation, in differential
form, becomes as follows:

This is Bernoulli Equation for an incompressible frictionless flow

 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of Energy
/Bernoulli equation for dynamic pressure
The Bernoulli Equation for the steady flow air up to about Mach 0.3 (about 2% error) is
applicable. For a Pitot tube, Bernouli Equation is:
p∞ + ½ρ∞ U∞2 + ρ∞ g z∞ = p + ½ρ u2 + ρg z = constant = static pressure + dynamic
pressure = total pressure
A Pitot tube is aligned facing directly into the flow of air and measures
total (or pitot) pressure. Thus, ppitot = p∞ + ½ρ∞ U∞2
Static tube and pressure tapping Surface holes sense the static pressure of the airflow,
so long as it does not disturb the dynamic field of the flow.
The difference between the two pressures is thus: ppitot - pstatic = ppitot - p∞ = ½ρ∞
U∞2. If the density of the field is known, then U∞ is obtained.
 2. Fundamental equations
2.4. Laws of Conservation/ Conservation of
Energy /Bernoulli equation for airfoil
Bernoulli Equation for an incompressible frictionless flow around an airfoil:
p∞ + ½ρ∞ U∞2 + ρ∞ g z∞ = p + ½ρ u2 + ρg z = constant
meaning that static pressure + dynamic pressure + potential pressure are
constant.
Thus p - p∞ = ½ ρ∞(U∞2 – u2) + ρg(z∞ - z) is the pressure difference at any
point on the surface compared with the freestream static pressure. The
potential term ρg(z∞ - z) is ignored in normal aircraft aerodynamic work,
compared with the pressure & velocity terms
 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations
2.5.1. Pressure Coefficient:
• 1. the freestream dynamic pressure defined by ½ρ∞ U∞2, the practical form
of pressure coefficient is:

• 2. If flow is incompressible (Density constant):

 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations

2.5.2. Specific heat ratio (adiabatic index of compression):

• Energy supplied at constant volume (piston locked)

• Energy supplied at constant pressure (piston free,

force constant) :

therefore

The Specific Gas Constant and Specific Heat ratio are:

 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations

2.5.3. Speed of sound:

The adiabatic relationship between pressure&specific volume or

density is obtained :

The speed of sound (acoustic speed) in a gas is described by the

propagation of a wave through the medium. it induces
disturbances which are isentropic in all respects:

However, in isentropic process:

Substitution of above:

SO, speed of sound is:

 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations
2.5.4. Mach number:
• Ernst Mach (1838 – 1916) was an Austrian-Czech physicist &
philosopher of science. Mach is best known for an 1877 paper on
supersonic velocity, in which he gave his name to the ratio of an
object’s speed, to that of the speed of sound in the same medium.
• Mach number = v/a, where v is the object speed and a is the sound
speed
• Flow is subsonic if Mach number is less than one (M < 1)
• Flow is sonic if Mach number is equal to one (M = 1)
• Flow is supersonic if Mach number is greater than one (M > 1)
• Flow is hypersonic if Mach number is much greater than one (M >> 1)
Or:
Subsonic region (M<0.9), transonic region (0.9<M<1.1), supersonic region
(1.1<M<5) and hypersonic region (M>5)
 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations
2.5.5. Reynolds Number:

• Osborne Reynolds (1842 - 1912), British; was a researcher in

mechanics & most particularly in the field of fluid mechanics. He is
best known for his papers on fluid flow and turbulence.
• Extract from his 1883 Paper he found out that for a range of flow
velocities, pipe diameters, and viscosities, a dimensionless number
can be verified to express the flow.
• He also compared the characteristics of flow in converging and
diverging passages, pointing out that, whereas in the former the
conditions were favourable for producing steady flow, in the latter
the flow was likely to be eddying and unsteady.
• An important parameter which relates the relative scale of the
inertial forces to the viscous forces in a flow is called Reynold
Number:
 2. Fundamental equations
2.5. Practical equations

2.5.6. Shear Stress:

Shear stress is proportional to change of vertical velocity. It is affected by
viscosity and therefore described mathematically by the relationship:

μ is the ‘dynamic viscosity coefficient’ of the fluid.

 Example
• An aircraft flies at -31 degrees of
centigrade where climbed from sea level
condition. If the speed is Mach 0.65, What
pressure the pitot tube shows?
 Vacuum test
• http://rayanuk.com/20141104134910013/b
owling-ball-and-a-feather-are-dropped-in-
vacuum